Human boddy

GITA ARJUN

A healthy diet and regular exercise will help relieve menstrual cramps

Sonam is doubled over in pain. She is in her mid-twenties and dreads getting her periods. She wishes she could get relief from this pain without having to resort to medications.

More than half of menstruating women experience some pain during their menstrual periods, at least for 1-2 days each month. The pain that occurs during periods is called dysmenorrhoea. Usually, the pain is mild. Sometimes, however, the pain is severe enough to keep them from their normal activities. Painful periods are the leading cause of women missing work and school.

Menstrual cramps are very common concerns among women who experience regular menstrual cycles. The pain is also a cause of anxiety to parents of young girls who feel helpless as they see their daughter suffering.

There are many medications available that can ease menstrual pain. These are safe and can be taken every month to relieve cramping. Nevertheless, many women wish that they could pro-actively do something to completely do away with, or at least, reduce the pain without medications.

Exercises for menstrual pain

Like many aches and pains in different parts of the body, menstrual pain too responds to regular exercise. The best way to deal with menstrual cramping is to have a healthy diet before and during the periods and accompany this with a regular exercise routine.

Walking

Regular walking is a great way of reducing menstrual pain. You should walk briskly for at least 45 minutes, five days a week. The walking should be fast enough to make you breathless but still allow you to speak. The important thing is to push your speed up periodically. When your body feels the pain in your legs, it releases endorphins, which are ‘feel-good' chemicals in the brain. These are natural painkillers.

If you exercise regularly, your menstrual cramps become less painful because of the circulating endorphins.

Parents should encourage their daughters to be physically active and take up sports. Many young girls find that their cramping is relieved and even the flow reduces if they exercise regularly.

When the pain is really bad, women tend to curl up in bed to relieve the pain. This may not be a very good strategy because then your mind focusses entirely on the pain and there is no respite. Congestion in the pelvis and the spasmodic contraction of the uterus are the two main causes of menstrual pain. Gentle walking helps ease this and will actually reduce the pain.

Stretching exercises

Practising stretching exercises regularly could help you relieve the pain during periods. You can try pelvic stretches that can help you significantly reduce the intensity of menstrual pain. Below are two options for pelvic exercises that you can practise to reduce the pain.

Exercise 1: Lie on your back with your knees bent. Make sure you are in a comfortable position and your lower back does not have undue pressure on it. Next, slowly move your knees up to your chest and ‘hug' them for a count of 5 seconds. Apply enough pressure so that you can feel a slight stretch in your lower back. Slowly move your knees back to starting position. Do this at least 10 times a set. This exercise stretches the lower back and eases the nagging lower back pain that many women suffer from during the menstrual period.

Exercise 2: The next exercise is equally soothing for the lower back but is done in the opposite way. Get on your hands and knees, with your knees together. Slowly sit back till your thighs are touching your calves. Then lean forward with your palms on the floor and then slide them forward till your head touches the floor. Be sure to stop when you feel a pull in your back. This is sometimes referred to as the praying position. Relax as you hold this position and close your eyes. You can hold it for 10-15 seconds and go back to starting position. Do this at least 5 times a set.

Having pain during periods is common. The degree of pain varies from woman to woman. Medications and hot water fomentation are invaluable in relieving the pain. However, regular exercise can help alleviate the pain and may even do away with the need for medications.

The author is an obstetrician and gynaecologist practising in Chennai and has written the book ‘Passport to a Healthy Pregnancy'.

www.passport2health.in

source: the hindu

Brain : Prime Minister,
Head : Education Minister,
Ears : Post and Telegraph Minister,
Stomach : Food & Agriculture Minister,
Hands : Labour Minister,
Heart : Finance Minister,
Nose : Health Minister,
Teeth : Industrial & Civil supply Minister,
Eyes : Law Minister,
Skin : Defense Minister,
Leg : Transport Minister,
Tongue : Broad Casting Minister,
Lungs : Home Minister.

several years a go, a movie was released called Lorenzo's Oil. The story followed a family living outside of Washington D.C and there struggle to save there son Lorenzo from an incurable disease called adrenoleukodystrophy or ALD for short. ALD is a genetic disorder that causes the brain and the adrenal glands to fail. the adrenal glands are pair shaped organs located on each side of your kidneys, they control among other things the chemicals that play a role in the fight or flight response. As ALD progresses the adrenal glands stop working causing a wide variety of symptoms ranging from feeling tired all the time to a tan look to the skin. As for what it does to the brain i'll describe just a few of the symptoms related to this area of the disease and anyone wishing to know more can contact me and I'll give you more info. Children with ALD are often blind, deaf, unable to speak or move and in later stages are unable to eat so a feeding tube is needed to keep them alive. They also have seizures and may lapse into a coma. some children like Lorenzo continue to be able to recognize family and others familiar to them while the majority of them are unreachable.

18 july, 2010



Don't let diabetes get in your way of fitness. Dr. SHEELA NAMBIAR gives tips on how to stay active even if you are a diabetic.





Photo: H. Vibhu

Stay active: Exercise keeps blood sugar under control.

Diabetes mellitus has raced ahead as one of the most prominent contenders for “Disease of the 21st century”. Diabetes Type 2, the more common kind, refers to a disease that usually makes its appearance after the age of 40. Poor lifestyle habits like sedentary living, obesity, and unhealthy food patterns have been found to be precursors to Diabetes type 2. There is a genetic component. This does not mean, however, that you remain conveniently philosophical if you have a family history. Actively preventing onset of the disease by keeping one's weight in control and partaking in vigorous daily physical exercise, building muscle and burning calories is a more pro-active approach to adopt towards prevention.

The main complications of Diabetes arise as a direct result of poor blood sugar control that has various implications on the kidneys, eyes, skin and nerves.

Management

Lifestyle and dietary modifications need to be made to optimise treatment.

It is “no sugar” from now on. Add that to a list that includes no refined carbs like refined flour, starchy vegetables, fruit juices, fruits like mangoes, custard apples and dates, fried food, sauces and salad dressings with hidden sugars (read the labels) and alcohol.

While on your medication, be attentive to the timings of your meals. Long periods of hunger and binge eating result in wildly fluctuating blood sugars. Every meal has to contain a combination of a complex carb and protein to slow the absorption of glucose.

Depending totally on medication to control your diabetic condition is, at best, a pretty senseless strategy. Including regular exercise not only burns calories to keep your weight in check and so on, but also has been found to control, modify and even slow down the progression of the disease and its outcome. Besides, the obvious benefits of exercise like weight loss, stronger bones and muscles, more flexibility, better mood and higher self esteem apply for a diabetic as much as any body else and improve the overall quality of life.

What kind of exercise?

Include Aerobic activity, Strength training and Flexibility to your routine.

Aerobic activities like walking, running, cycling burn calories and utilise blood glucose for energy. Depending on your body weight and weight loss goals, you can exercise aerobically for 30-60 minutes everyday.

A novice can begin at a 50 per cent intensity. This would mean a level at which you are comfortable having a conversation while exercising. With increasing fitness levels however, one needs to increase intensity and challenge oneself to a superior plane.

Strength training by using weights, machines and resistance bands has been found to increase muscle mass and decrease fat percentage, which is crucial to better blood glucose control. Muscle being active tissue (unlike fat), improves calorie burn and the basal metabolism of the body. Training with weights encourages the movement of glucose into the muscles and improves sensitivity to insulin. This may mean a decrease in dosage of insulin (if you are taking it) or other diabetic medication over time. Weight training 3-4 times a week is adequate to show improvement in strength and quality of muscle.

Stretching is an integral part of any routine. Stretching everyday, or incorporating a modality like Yoga to your routine will keep you agile and prevent aches and pains.

Work on your balance. Balance and strength training reduce ones likelihood of falls and injury, which could prove dangerous, particularly for a diabetic whose healing is impaired

It is essential to maintain meticulous care of feet, teeth, skin to prevent infection and injury. Stay physically active during the day. A sedentary lifestyle will compound the problems of your disease and your weight. Blood sugar control is more difficult when an individual is overweight.

Don't let diabetes get in your way of fitness. Some individuals, for fear of “going hypo”, avoid exercise altogether. However, this happens more often in insulin dependent, Type 1 diabetics. If you are cautious and aware of the precautions while exercising, there is no reason for you not to exercise regularly to lead a better quality life, experience all the positive spin offs of regular exercise. Being fit helps you gain some semblance of control over this disease and your life in general.


Special Care

* What special precautions does a diabetic need to take while exercising?

* Get a medical clearance from your doctor.

* Have regular health checks to monitor the disease.

* Confer with a fitness consultant familiar with your disease to plan and supervise your routine for you.





* Check your blood sugar level before and after exercising initially until you get familiar with your activity and the way your body responds to your workout.





* Check your feet for blisters or sores before and after exercising. There is no such thing as “just a little blister” for a diabetic. That “little” blister could become a full blown sore that can tail spin into an unmanageable infection





* Wear proper shoes and socks. It is worth investing in superior quality gear to train. Good supportive shoes will reduce the incidence of accidents and skin chaffing.Drink plenty of fluids before, during and after exercising. Plain water is fine.

* Always warm up before exercising and cool down afterward.

* Have a snack or fruit juice handy in case your blood sugar levels drop too low.





* Familiarise yourself with the symptoms of low blood sugar and recognize them at the earliest.

source: the hindu

18 july, 2010


VAIJU NARAVANE


Winner of the 2010 Irene Joliot Curie Prize for Scientific Innovation, French scientist Dr. Francoise Soussaline talks about how her new test for early detection of cervical cancer could help women across the world.




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I have always been attracted by cross-cutting, interdisciplinary work. But my main concern has also been the application and utility of this research for human benefit and development
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A helping hand for women: Dr. Francoise Soussaline.

A French woman scientist has developed a new test, described as both cheap and reliable, for the early detection of lesions that could lead to cancer of the cervix in women. In India, cervical cancer is the leading cause of death among women between the ages of 25 and 55 inflicting huge human, psychological and economic costs on society.

“Each minute, a woman living in the emerging BRIC nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China) dies of cervical cancer. Half these deaths occur before the woman has reached the age of 35. Unfortunately less than three per cent of the women in these countries are systematically screened for a disease that is totally curable if caught in the early stages. In comparison, mass screening in the West is as high as 60 per cent,” said Dr. Francoise Soussaline, the scientist who developed the new low cost method of mass screening for the disease in an exclusive interview.

Dr. Soussaline is no stranger to medical imaging. Her company IMSTAR, which she started in 1985, develops, produces and commercialises automated imaging systems for research in life sciences as well as pre-clinical research both in the public and private domain, working principally on genetic illnesses and cancers. IMSTAR is now the leader in France for automated imaging techniques.

Main concern

For her pioneering work, Dr. Francoise Soussaline was awarded the 2010 Irene Joliot Curie Prize for Scientific Innovation, one of France's top awards for women scientists, on June 21, 2010.

“I have always been attracted by cross-cutting, interdisciplinary work. I wanted to see how physics and mathematics, for example, could be applied to medicine and my work has involved several fields. But my main concern has also been the application and utility of this research for human benefit and development,” said Dr. Soussaline, a shy, neat woman in her early sixties, who holds a double doctorate: in instrumental physics and bio- medicine.

It was with this in mind that she and her colleagues at IMSTAR in cooperation with leading French cytopathologists began working on a new test, to detect high-grade epithelial cells in cervical smears that could lead to cancer of the cervix. Caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV), it spreads through sexual contact, which can give rise to an infection leading to cellular changes in the cervix. The infection doesn't last very long because the body is usually able to fight it; but if HPV doesn't go away, the virus may cause cervix cells to change and become pre-cancer cells.

Pre-cancer cells are not cancer. Most cells with early pre-cancer changes return to normal on their own. But sometimes, the pre-cancer cells may turn into cancer if they are not discovered on time and treated. Because HPV is so common, any woman who has ever had sex can get cervix cancer. However, most women who get HPV do not get cervix cancer.

“The concept of this new test is based on proven data that only cervical lesions with high grade cells will evolve into invasive or cancer cells after a space of about two years. These two years are crucial because, during that period, if there is a screening method that allows the detection of these cells then the woman can be easily and inexpensively treated and cured,” Dr Soussaline said.

It is all a question of the economies of scale. The greater the volume of the women screened, the cheaper the test becomes and for several million tests per year the end user price could be reduced to as little as €3.00 per patient or about Rs 180. Since the test is completely automated the need for trained cyto-technicians is dramatically reduced. One of the problems with the pap smear currently used is that it requires the intervention of a large number of highly trained cytotechnicians leading to a significant percentage of “false positives” and “false negatives”.

“In many cases women who are not at risk but are erroneously diagnosed as positive have to undergo additional invasive tests. But that is not as dangerous or damaging as the “false negatives” where inadequately trained or inexperienced cyto-technicians give a negative diagnosis when the test is, in fact, positive. The test developed by IMSTAR limits human intervention and allows high throughput at low cost. The test is made up of a sampling kit for liquid cytology (much like the one used for a pap smear), specific staining agents as well as, and this is crucial, an apparatus for slide preparation and the Pathfinder Cellscan slide reader and analyser that scans all slides for a possible presence of high grade cells,” Dr Soussaline explained.

How it works

The new test, whose specificity (1/False Positive) is over 85 per cent and sensitivity (1/False Negative) is over 90 per cent, is now poised to go into commercial use in China. The specific software programme able to detect suspicious cells was tested on a representative sampling of 25,000 women. The complete technology needed to perform this new test will be licensed by IMSTAR to a Chinese partner for the production of sampling kits and buffer as well as for the automated slide reader/analyser apparatus. The partner comes from the IVD field, not from the pharmaceutical industry.

Asked what such a test could mean for India, Dr Soussaline said: “In India cervical cancer is the number one cause of death by cancer in women. Ironically, it is the only cancer that can be eradicated if an appropriate mass screening programme is put in place.

For India, the HPV vaccine is not a viable solution because of the cost involved and because of the long probation period needed to evaluate its benefit. In India, this test could prove highly cost effective since the volume of patients to be screened is over 20 million per year.

It could lead to a 30-40 per cent decrease in mortality due to cervical cancer five years after the test is introduced and a decrease of over 60 per cent 10 years after the introduction of the test.”


* * *

Irene Joliot Curie Prize

The prize is named after the daughter of Pierre and Marie Curie, the world's most famous scientific couple, who discovered Radium and Polonium and jointly won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903 (later Marie Curie won it a second time for Chemistry).

Repeating the example of her parents Irene Joliot Curie too worked shoulder to shoulder with her husband, Frederic Joliot, and the two won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1927.

This year, the president of the Irene Joliot Curie Prize jury was Francoise Barre-Sinoussi, the French woman doctor and researcher who won the Nobel for Medicine in 2008 for her work on HIV Aids.

source: the hindu

High decibel impact

July 10, 2010

DR. RAVI RAMALINGAM

Vuvuzela, the ancient South African horn, has found its way into FIFA and the headlines this soccer season. Although many soccer fans seem to see it as a way of egging their teams on, most people are unaware of its impact on their hearing mechanism!

Vuvuzela, the wind instrument invented by Neil Von Schalkwyk, creates a droning sound measuring 144dB, which is way above the normal recommended hearing range of -20 dB and +25 dB. When noise is too loud, it begins to kill nerve's endings in the inner ear. As the exposure time to loud noise increases, more and more nerve endings are destroyed. As the number of nerve endings decreases the hearing ability also dips. There is no way to restore life to dead nerve endings; the damage is permanent.

Habitual exposure to noise above 85 dB will cause a gradual hearing loss in a significant number of individuals and louder noises will accelerate this damage. For unprotected ears, the allowed exposure time decreases by one half for each five dB increase in average noise level. For instance, exposure is limited to 8 hours at 90 dB, 4 hours at 95 dB, and 2 hours at 100 dB. The highest permissible noise exposure for the unprotected ear is 115 dB for 15 minutes/day. Any noise above 140 dB is not permitted.

People differ in their sensitivity to noise. As a general rule, noise may damage hearing if a person has to shout over background noise to be heard. Repeated noise from the vuvuzela could hurt the ears since it can make the ears ring or make the person slightly deaf for several hours after exposure to the noise. Much to the chagrin of the players, broadcasters, spectators and television viewers alike, the FIFA refused to ban the Vuvuzela.

A ringing in the ears called tinnitus commonly occurs after noise exposure, and it often becomes permanent. Some people react to loud noise with anxiety and irritability; it may trigger an increase in the pulse rate and blood pressure or may even result in acidity. Very loud noise can reduce efficiency in performing difficult tasks by diverting attention from the job.

The decibel (dB)

Intensity of sound is measured in decibels (dB). The scale runs from the faintest sound the human ear can detect, which is labeled 0dB, to over 180dB, the noise at a rocket pad during launch. Decibels are measured logarithmically. This means that as decibel intensity increases by units of 10, each increase is 10 times the lower figure. Thus, 20 decibels is 10 times the intensity of 10 decibels, and 30 decibels is 100 times as intense as 10 decibels.

Prof. Dr Ravi Ramalingam is a Chennai-based ENT specialist and surgeon. Website: www.kkrenthospital.org

Source:
www.thehindu.com

11 july, 2010


DR. RAVI VENKATESH


The way you sit has an effect on your spine. Here are some tips to help you avoid a pain in the back. Dr. RAVI VENKATESH





PHOTO: Satish. H

Sit correctly:The Wrong (left) and the right posture.

If you are one of those who sits at their desks in front of a computer for at least seven hours a day, bad posture is surely a part of your daily life. With your head tilted, your neck strained and your spine curved, you may wind up seriously damaging your spine.

But there are many ways to ease back pain and improve your posture by making small adjustments.

Why does it happen?


Back and neck pain is very common in people who lead sedentary lifestyles. Smoking and obesity also affect your posture and hence your back. The discs in your back are made up of 80 per cent water; they are jelly-like in substance. Smoking, obesity and a sedentary lifestyle causes that water to dry and, hence, back problems crop up. Your spine protects your neural structure, provides support to the body and also flexibility. If you don't watch out, you can suffer from a slip disc which causes immense back and leg pain.

Treatment


Back pain affects 80-90 per cent of people at some point. The commonest cause is mechanical back strain and disc prolapse. The treatment includes conservative measures like analgesics and physiotherapy. Most individuals improve with these measures. The common surgery for disc prolapse is micro discectomy.

Those who do not receive proper treatment face some degree of instability or spondylolisthesis (slipping of one vertebra over the other).Degenerative listhesis is managed by spinal fusion, which causes loss of movement at the affected level and a chance of adjacent disc degeneration.

Dynamic stabilisation is the modern treatment for degenerative spondylolisthesis by which spinal stability is restored to normalcy. The advantages are that it restores stability, maintains movements and offloads the disc.

The writer is a Chennai-based senior spine surgeon.


Prevent back problems

Some easy adjustments can help prevent serious spine damage.


If you spend long hours in a chair, get up for a small walk every half an hour
If you stand for long hours, shift the weight from one leg to another
Your chair should give your back complete support. Otherwise, support your lower back with a small pillow
Never bend from your back. Always bend from your hips
On a chair, your hip and knee should be at a 90 degree angle from the ground
Your computer screen should be tilted so that your neck only bends by 30 degrees
If walking with heavy weights , carry equal weight on both sides
Exercise regularly, but consult a trainer
Eat in moderation to avoid obesity, which puts strain on the back
Avoid sleeping on the stomach and the spine should be in normal curve
Avoid high heels, which can cause back problems

source: the hindu

june 20, 2010


Shore up your defences


DR. SAFINAZ


The monsoon may bring relief from the sweltering heat but also brings with it a host of diseases. Here's how you can step up your natural immunity and stay safe.





Photo: Akhilesh Kumar

Prepare for the rains:Build your body's immune system.

With the sweltering heat driving us to the edge, most of us look heavenward for relief. But the onset of monsoon also requires you to tread with caution.

A host of diseases like jaundice, malaria, typhoid, gastro intestinal infections, cough, cold, fever and flu are quite common. Sometimes they may acquire serious proportions.

Reasons for infection


The most probable reason for the high rate of infections during monsoons is ‘environmental conditions'. High levels of humidity and a temperature that is neither too high nor too low together are conducive to the growth of a range of pathogens.

Add to this, problems like stagnated water bodies, overflowing drains, impure drinking water, leaky walls and roofs and you have an ideal setting for infections and disease.

The monsoon also marks a time when our immunity takes a beating, rendering us vulnerable to diseases. Treatment is, of course, important but what is more important and effective is prevention.

Boost your natural immunity


Natural Immunity refers to a state where a person is immune to a disease. The natural immune response is a pre-programmed first line of defence that is primarily responsible for eliminating or containing pathogens at the site of entrance into the host.

Overuse of antibiotics, exposure to radiation and hazardous chemicals and the widespread use of corticosteroids cripple the immune system. So boosting your natural immunity is a very effective method of arresting the onset of various diseases. Unfortunately the role of natural immunity in helping fend off a host of diseases has gone unrecognised.

Building natural immunity is especially important in children. A strong immune system provides a child with the natural defences to fight many diseases. Again, the immune system declines as we grow older. Quality of life in old age is largely dependent on the ability to manipulate the natural immune system.

With regard to natural immunity, one of the most important decisions an individual can make is to choose a healthy lifestyle. This will help maintain the natural immune system. Building up your body's disease-fighting arsenal are Immuno-nutrients, which are foods that have an immuno-modulatory and anti-oxidant effect. These nutrients help build the body's immunity and enhance its ability to fight infection.

Traditional nutrients


Traditional Indian systems of medicine like Ayurveda describe many such nutrients (see box). Scientific research confirms that these nutrients boost our natural immunity and enhance the body's ability to fight infections.

A regular dose of these immuno-nutrients goes a long way in helping build your body's ability to fend off infections and disease.

With the monsoon having set in and with the prospect of infections and disease looming large, it would be a good idea to shore up your body defences and enjoy the monsoon showers.

The writer is a Chennai-based General Physician.






Basic precautions

Make sure that you follow these rules
Boil water before drinking or use ultraviolet/reverse osmosis filters
Bathe regularly, wash your hands with soap and keep clean
Remove all sources of stagnant water. Clean out desert coolers regularly
Keep all the water reservoirs and tanks covered
Use repellents to prevent mosquito bites. Cover up

* * *





Source of nutrients

Some fruits and substances rich in these nutrients include:


Amla: Amla is rich in vitamin C, tannins and pectins
Ashwagandha: Helps control stress; regulates immunity
Guduchi: For physical and mental strength; rejuvenates the immune system
Kesar: Energises the body, promotes skin health
Shatavari: Promotes health and helps build stamina

* * *

Do's and don'ts


Drink plenty of vegetable soup
Drink boiled and cooled water with a little honey
Add ginger and green gram in daily diet
Eat light foods made of old barley, rice and wheat
Wash vegetables with clean water and steam well to kill germs
Keep surroundings dry and clean
Dry your feet with a soft dry cloth whenever wet
Don't over-exert yourself physically
Don't eat uncooked foods and salads
Don't enter air conditioned room with wet hairand damp clothes
Don't allow water to stagnate
Source: www.ayurhelp.com/ articles/mansoon_care.htm

reproduced by the hindu

june 13, 2010

News you can use

Are you the kind of person who has trouble falling asleep? Do you toss and turn at night? Do you wake up feeling tired? Well, you are not alone. There are lakhs of people who struggle trying to sleep at night.

Did you know that an adult needs 7 to 8 hours of sleep at night. If you are getting up at night or feeling groggy in the morning, it means you are not getting enough sleep. It might take you a few days to find out the average sleep you need — this varies from person to person. Did you also know that driving when deprived of sleep is similar to driving when drunk? But by adopting a few techniques, you can start to enjoy proper sleep. A few ways to ensure you have a good night sleep:


You should have enough room to stretch and turn comfortably, including with a bedmate present. Experiment with different levels of mattress firmness, foam toppers or egg crate toppers and pillows that give more support.


Loud conversations, blaring TV, music, traffic can make it difficult to sleep well. Try to minimise these sounds. Earplugs may help.


When it’s time to sleep, make sure that your room is dark. Heavy curtains can help block light from windows, or you can use an eye mask to cover your eyes.


Reserve your bed for sleeping. If you associate your bed with events like work or errands, it will only make it harder to wind down at night.


Get up and go to bed the same time every day. Even on holidays! When your sleep cycle has a regular rhythm, you will feel better.


Do not exercise four hours before bedtime. Regular exercise helps you sleep well, but the timing of the workout is important.


Listen to relaxing music, read something soothing for 15 minutes, have a cup of caffeine free tea, do relaxation exercises.


Stay away from caffeine, nicotine and alcohol at least four to six hours before bed. Caffeine and nicotine are stimulants that interfere with your ability to fall asleep.


Sleep with your head facing north. This aligns your body with the magnetic field of the planet, bringing the energies into harmony with the earth.

source: dailypioneer

june 6th,

News you can use

The incidence of breast cancer in India is on the rise. It is fast becoming the number one cancer in women pushing the cervical cancer to the second spot. It is reported that one in 22 women in India is likely to suffer from breast cancer during her lifetime. Recently a breast cancer programme was organised in the Capital where experts talked about ideal diet, exercise, etc for patients.

What is the ideal diet for breast cancer patients?

Preeti Vijay, HOD Dietician, Max Healthcare: Adequate intake of calories, protein and micronutrients can improve nutritional status for most patients. The nutritional principles outlined by the American Cancer Society’s guidelines on diet, nutrition and cancer prevention should be used for the basis of a healthy diet including those who are well nourished, during as well as after treatment. Eat several small meals instead of three regular meals. Stock up on a variety of foods. Try different settings when eating — the dining room, kitchen, with background music, watching television – anything that makes eating more appealing. Each person’s diet should be to modified to fit her personal needs.

What role does the diet play in the wellbeing of the patient?

Preeti Vijay: Diet plays a very important role in the wellbeing and recovery of the patient. Healthy diet is essential to correct existing nutritional deficiencies or to promote nutritional status. During the treatment patient suffers from different problems like anorexia, constipation, taste changes, mouth dryness, etc. Because of this the patients are unable to have food as a normal person and they require variety in the food.

What are some of the foods that the patients avoid?

Preeti Vijay: In take of meat, cream, cheese, vanaspati etc. Avoiding deep fried, char grilled and burnt foods, high fat snacks, high salt and sugar, avoid smoking and passive smoking.

Avoiding smoked and cured foods — contain nitrosamines which are carcinogenic. Read labels of all packaged meats. Alcohol too should be avoided.

What are some of the exercises recommended?

Dr Alakananada Banerjee; Head — Phsyiotherapy & Rehabilitation: Exercises which are prescribed to a patient who had undergone a surgery for breast cancer are mainly focused to maintain and improve shoulder joint mobility and improve circulation in the arm and prevent any swelling or oedema. Postural correction exercises are also demonstrated to the patients. Some of the exercises are: Shoulder exercises, shoulder flexion, shoulder rotation, shoulder abduction, wand exercises, pulley exercises, ball squeezing exercises. Then there are neck movement exercises: Forward and backward bending, side flexion and rotation.

Can these exercises be done by all breast cancer patients? Or do they need to consult their individual treating doctors?

Dr Banerjee: These exercises can be done by all patients who have undergone cancer removal surgery though, it is important to consult your doctor before starting with any of the exercises.

What are some of the other considerations/precautions that need to be taken care of?

Dr Geeta K, Senior Consultant — Surgical Oncology: There is no method of preventing breast cancer but being self aware and enrolling into a screening programmme is helpful. It is certainly advisable to be aware of your breast by performing regular breast self examination.

The technique can be taught to you by a breast specialist and then you can perform it every month one week after your periods. Screening helps in picking up very early lesions.There is no method of preventing breast cancer but being self aware and enrolling into a screening programmme (if you have a significant family history or if you are over the age of 50) is helpful.

It is certainly advisable to be aware of your breast by performing regular breast self examination. The technique can be taught to you by a breast specialist and then you can perform it every month one week after your periods. If you are post menopausal you can fix a date every month which coincides with your birth date or marriage anniversary etc.

The whole idea of being breast aware is to be able to pick up an abnormality at the earliest and it goes without saying that an early diagnosis improves the chances of cure. Screening helps in picking up very early lesions, even those that are not felt on examination and that is the best possible situation to be in if it is indeed cancer.

However, mammograms are also known to miss cancer in about 20 per cent cases. All the information that has been collected with imaging should be rationalised in collaboration with the clinician.

source: dailypioneer

june 6th, 2010


ARUNA CHANDARAJU


You tend to hear a lot about cholesterol: HDL, LDL, VLDL. But what actually does all of it mean? Read on…







You decide your health: Exercise and make good food choices.

Cholesterol: A word that gets a lot of bad press, not all of it deserved. As in the typical Indian film, there is a good guy or HDL and the bad guy or LDL. Of course, there is a host of other characters too like VLDL and triglycerides.

High LDL cholesterol and low HDL cholesterol –– described as abnormal cholesterol levels –– are a major risk factor for heart disease and stroke. The bad news is that Indians are genetically vulnerable being born with narrower arteries. Indians have a two-three times higher incidence of coronary disease than North Americans or Western Europeans. Worse, in Indians, heart disease tends to occur a decade earlier and the incidence is also more severe.

Harmful


Bad cholesterol is harmful on its own and for other reasons too, says Dr. Srikanth Sola, Consultant Cardiologist, Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Medical Sciences, Bangalore, and formerly Staff Cardiologist, Cleveland Clinic, U.S. “Bad cholesterol is like bad company –– undesirable in itself and leading to other problems.

It causes atherosclerosis or blockages in arteries. When blockages build up gradually, it can cause angina (chest pain on exertion or emotional stress) or improper blood flow to legs and abdominal organs. Sometimes, a piece of these blocks break off suddenly and occlude the entire artery causing a heart attack or stroke.”

A major factor in high bad-cholesterol is genes but others include being overweight, a sedentary lifestyle, stress and foods loaded in saturated fat.





Dr Anil Mishra, Medical Director and Senior Consultant Interventional Cardiologist, B.M. Birla Heart Research Centre, Kolkata, explains: “Despite a low-cholesterol diet, you can have high LDL because the body is genetically programmed to produce more especially if you have a family history. Occasionally, high LDL can be caused by a disease like hypothyroidism.”

If all preventive measures fail, people with high cholesterol counts — especially diabetics and post heart-attack/stroke patients — are prescribed medication.

However, increasing good cholesterol is a tougher job. As Dr. Mishra says: “There is effective medicine to reduce bad cholesterol but the same cannot be said of medicines to increase good cholesterol. I advise regular exercise, no smoking and eating nuts like almonds, walnuts and chestnuts. Walking three-four km a day and good diet are, perhaps, the best measures.”

So, taking medication alone is not enough; it must be accompanied by lifestyle changes.

Begin early


As always, prevention is better than cure. However, while most people get heart-health conscious in their mid-30s or early 40s, doctors warn that could be too late. Childhood is the time to begin. As Dr Mishra reveals: “The foundation for atheromatous plaque that causes blockages in arteries is laid in childhood and early teens.”





A cause for concern, therefore, is that today's children are getting less exercise thanks to TV, computer-games, and study-load. Also, many children and teenagers snack regularly on salted, deep-fried crunchy-munchies and eat fast-food/street-food heavy in salt and oil (often reheated oil, thus additionally dangerous).

Dr. Sola notes that childhood-obesity rates are increasing rapidly. “And obese children are at higher risk of developing heart disease, high cholesterol, diabetes, high BP, obesity-related problems earlier than normal-weight children.”

Children should eat lots of whole grain, fruits and vegetables with salty, deep-fried foods being occasional indulgences.

Work out regularly


And exercise a lot too. Dr. B. Sesikeran, Director, National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, adds: “We don't recommend that children reduce intake of dairy products but definitely a good amount of regular physical activity in the form of outdoor games will be good for their future health.” Parents should serve healthy meals and set an example by indulging in sports/exercise and involve their children in them, says Dr. Mishra.

Ultimately, you decide your health. Our modern, stress-inducing environment and genetic vulnerability might be bad news. But a lot is in our own hands; we hold the key to good health.



Stay healthy

* First exercise. Dr Sola recommends brisk walking for at least 30 min, five times a week.
* Dr. Mishra and Dr. Sola recommend a vegetarian diet high in whole grain like brown rice, whole wheat atta, brown bread, sprouts, fresh fruit, vegetables.
* Avoid frying food; have it steamed, grilled or baked.
* The principal sources of bad cholesterol in a veg diet are ghee, butter, cream, cheese and whole-fat milk. In a non-veg diet the main sources are meat, mutton and eggs.
* For non-vegetarians, the best option is limited portions of fish. Avoid red meat and mutton.
* Egg white in moderation (not yolk) is okay for those whose cholesterol is under control but not for those with high cholesterol.
* Reduce weight especially around the abdomen.

Make a difference

Chennai-based, software professional M. Sujatha, (39)

A check-up after occasional breathless bouts showed her lipid profile counts on the border of abnormal. Additional risks were family history and being anxietyprone.

Immediate lifestyle changes were ordered, though not medication.

Sujatha complied immediately. For lunch and dinner she chose soups of leafy, green vegetables; salads minus dressing; fresh fruits, sprouts, boiled vegetables, dal; dry rotis; brown rice and low-fat curds. Non-vegetarian was grilled fish.

Breakfast was either cereals; veggie-stuffed parathas roasted in minimum oil; idlis/low-oil utthappams with sambar instead of the oil-drenched pickles and gunpowder she loved.

This diet was combined with a daily 40-minute walk (except Sundays), some meditation, and lots of laughing sessions with her kids. "After 10 months,in which I cheated only on eight days,HDL rose and LDL fell, both significantly," she says.

Mumbai-based businessman Deepak Rathod (51) He had cholesterol problems. Given additional risk factors of borderline diabetes, being overweight and heavy-smoking, he was recommended strong medication plus lifestyle changes.

He took only the medicine religiously but did little else. He reduced smoking instead of quitting and exercised just twice a week. Diet changes seemed too much deprivation. Two years later, he suffered a severe heart-attack.

"Now, I am a reformed man. I advise others to learn from my example and take preventive measures," Rathod says.

source: the hindu

june 6th, 2010

Stylish, but dangerous


DR. RAKESH NAIR


Learn more about the connection between high heels and your knees.







Bad for the knees: Heels change the balance of the body.

It's no secret that women of all ages love high heels. When are in a chic set of heels, you know nothing can bring you down, except maybe bad knees. Yes, those killer heels can lead to knee pains that can hamper your daily life.

What heels can do


High heels change the whole balance of the body, which is aligned in a specific manner. When you wear heels, the weight falls on the knees, which are the body's weight bearing joints. Between 20 and 35 years, the cartilage, which is like the sole of a shoe, undergoes wear and tear but also repairs itself. All this wear and tear is micro trauma that can decide the age at which arthritis sets in.

Repeated injuries like a twisted ankle can cause such trauma and lead to early arthritis; as early as 45 years. All women have some elements of osteoporosis after 45 years, which accentuates the wear and tear of the cartilage as well.

Some younger patients also have thyroid problems, which leads to more wear and tear of cartilage because of weaker bones. After the age of 35, knee pain can increase and if you continue wearing heels, the knee arthritis can increase.

A bone density test will help identify the quality of your bones. If the knee bone is deformed, there is no other option but a knee replacement surgery.

What you can do

Easy tips to keep your knees healthy.

* Regularly exercise the muscles around the front and the back of the knee with light weight training
* Avoid the treadmill when you first start exercising, as it puts pressure on the knees. Instead start with cycling on neutral or on the cross trainer. After some time, you will be ready to get on the treadmill
* If you can, then swimming is the best exercise for patients with knee pain
* Ensure plenty of Calcium (milk and milk products) and Vitamin D (oily fish) in your diet to strengthen your bones. You can take vitamin D tablets after consulting your physician (calcium and vit. D test should be done)
* Women above 35 who identify their problem areas after a bone density test should also take plenty of calcium and vitamin D. Depending on their bone density test, treatment options are a once-a-month tablet or an injection once a year or daily injection depending on the severity of osteoporosis.
* Glucosamine helps in the regeneration of the cartilage, when the pain first surfaces
* Avoid squats and lunges in the gym and first start with machine exercises where you are sitting while weight training
* High heels can also cause back problems, so exercise your back as well.

The writer is a Mumbai-based knee replacement surgeon.
source: the hindu

Source - ivillage.com

Losing a few pounds doesn't have to cost you a fortune at the gym, nor does it mean you have to starve yourself. Following 10 little steps, you can easily drop unwanted weight while enhancing, rather than restricting your normal life
To lose one pound in weight a deficit of 3,500 calories needs to be created - by putting into action the 10 steps below the numbers add up pretty quickly resulting in some considerable weight loss with very little effort.
1. Eat breakfast
This may sound paradoxical and it also may sound very familiar but eat breakfast! Aside from anything else this kick-starts your metabolism. Those who miss breakfast tend to overeat later on in the day.
Missing breakfast also moves your body into starvation mode, which means it restricts the calories it burns. If you are aiming to shift pounds this is exactly the opposite of what you need. A good breakfast should contain a mixture of fibre, protein and ideally some fruit.
2. Take a detour
When you are popping to the shops, take the longer route. Adding 500 metres twice a day means walking an extra kilometre a day! Ten minutes of walking at four miles an hour burns about 50 calories. Do this twice and that's 100 calories in the bank! So in one month that's another pound down the drain.
3. Watch your fluids
They say you are what you eat, what they don't say is that you can also be what you drink! It is all too easy to sabotage a healthy eating plan by not taking enough care to consider what is in your cup.
At the lighter end of the scale switching full fat for semi-skimmed milk in your coffee (or better still go for a black coffee) will save you. A black coffee, however, has only 10 or so calories per cup whereas a mocha coffee from starbucks, even with skimmed milk has over 300 calories.
4. Go halves
It is not a crime to indulge in a bar of chocolate every once in a while, however you can easily get your chocolate fix with just half the bar. Even if you only treat yourself to chocolate once a week this will save you between 100 and 200 calories and if you have five chocolate bars a week that's up to 1,000 calories.
Try a similar tactic with any similar treats. You don't need to stop eating the things you enjoy, you just don't need to eat the amount that the manufacturers have decided on!

5. Pass on second helpings
Or at least wait. If you can hold off for 20 minutes before going back for more that is when your body will actually tell you whether you are full or not.
Skipping second helpings of, for example, an extra helping of roast potatoes is about 150 calories. An extra fish cake might give you 120 calories. Adding one extra portion together over a week and that's an average of about 1,000 calories. That's another pound in a month.
6. Fizzy drinks
We all know these are bad for us but too many of us don't listen. One can of cola will carry 139 calories. Diet drinks, although labelled as such, are equally bad if not worse.
In terms of nutrition these drinks offer nothing and actually carry negative side effects such as water retention, bloating and potential heart damage. So, diet or otherwise, knock these drinks on the head. If you love bubbles go for a sparkling water with some lemon or lime added.
If you abolish these soft drinks for just two weeks you won't miss them anymore, and your body will thank you for it too by feeling lighter and brighter.
7. Skinny dipping
I LOVE humus, it's one of my favourite foods. However, I am sadly aware of the fact that my little tubbed friend is loaded with calories and fat.
To avoid dip overload buy snack pots instead of the large 200g varieties. In buying mini-pots you are far less likely to over indulge but also you don't have to miss out on your favourite food.
8. Drink water
The more water you drink, the less your body will want to hang on to. It's pretty logical. The old trick is the best: always carry water with you. If I'm ever heading off the post office I'll grab a bottle and take it with me.
Inadvertently I drink half of it while walking. Being more hydrated also has a wonderful effect on your skin, nails, hair and energy levels. Thirst can also often be confused for hunger so the more hydrated you are the less likely are to feel the urge to run for the biscuit tin!
9. Take the stairs
If you were to run up stairs for an hour you could burn a whopping 1000 calories! This is of course not an option for most of us, even the super fit would feel as if their legs were about to fall of after an hour of stair running.
However, if you were to clock up just a couple of minutes going up the stairs each day that's an extra 40 calories. In a month that's over a thousand calories.
10. Swap white for brown
In all choices of carbohydrates, go for brown over white. Bread, rice, pasta, noodles...Very simply these 'brown' foods are more likely to be whole grain.
Choosing the brown products will provide you with more fibre again, making you feel fuller for longer. The resulting cut down in snacking could save you as much as 200 calories a day, in under two weeks that is another pound of weight loss.
Normally I don't support calorie counting but sometimes looking at the simple mathematics of weight loss can prove a great motivator.
As said earlier, you don't need weighing scales and measuring devices, just a few little changes to your habits and in a few weeks you'll be seeing the difference in your body without any major difference to your lifestyle.

Hello friends, this is the first post for this channel.

THE MOST IMPORTANT BODY PART

My mother used to ask me what is the most important part of the body and through the years I would take a guess at what I thought was the correct answer.
When I was younger I thought sound was very important to us as humans so I said my ears mommy. She said "No, many people are deaf. But you keep thinking
about it and I will ask you again soon."

Several years passed before she asked me again. Since my last attempt I contemplated a correct answer. So I told her "Mommy, sight is very important to
everybody, so it must be our eyes." She looked at me and told me that I was learning fast but the answer is not correct because there are many people
who are blind.

Stumped again I continued my quest for knowledge and over the years she asked me a couple more times and always the same answer "No. But you are getting
smarter every year my young child."

Then last year my Grandpa died. Everybody was hurt. Everybody was crying. Even my father cried. I remember that especially because it is only the second
time I saw him cry. My Mom looked at me when it was our turn to say our final good-bye to Grandpa. She asked me "Do you know the most important body
part yet my son?" And I was shocked she asked me this now. I always thought this was a game between her and me. She saw the confusion on my face and
told me "This question is very important. It shows that you have really lived in your life. For every body part you gave me in the past I have told you
that it was wrong and given you an example why. But today is the day you need to learn this important lesson."

She looked down at me like only a mother can. I saw her eyes well up with tears. She said, "Son the most important body part is your shoulder." Was it
because it held up my head? She replied, "No, because it can hold the head of a friend or loved one when they cry. Everybody needs a shoulder to cry on
sometime in life my son. I only hope that you have enough love and friends that you will always have a shoulder to cry on when you need it." Then and
there I knew the most important body part was not selfish, it was sympathetic to the pain of OTHERS.

You are a friend and whenever you want you can cry on my shoulder!!! People will forget what you said. People will forget what you did, but People will
never forget how you made them feel.

Best,
Nomi.

Diseases and its Treatment:
1) ASTHMA, COUGH & ALLERGY : For the treatment of these diseases
the following method is adopted. Take a cup of warm water, one spoon
of honey and half tea spoon of Kalonji oil. Mix this together and
drink in the morning before the breakfast. Similarly after dinner in
the night. Treatment for forty days . Avoid cool food stuff.

2) DIABETES (SUGAR): For the treatment of these diseases the
following method is adopted. Take one cup decoction (Black tea), Mix
half table spoon of kalonji oil and drink it in the morning and before
going to bed. Avoid oily food stuff, particularly fried items. If
any other allopathic treatment is going on continue it that treatment.
After 20 days check the sugar, is its normal Allopathic treatment
should be stopped and kalonji treatment be continued. After forty
days, sweet can be taken to check the sugar level. If it’s normal stop
the treatment.

3) Heart Attack: In a cup of goat milk add half tea spoon of
Kalonji oil and us this mixture twice a day. Avoid all fatty food
items . Continue treatment for ten days. After ten days use daily
once.

4) POLIO AND PARALYSIS (Laqwa): Take one cup of warm water, add
one spoon of honey and half tea spoon kalonji oil and use this mixture
twice daily and for children’s in two spoons milk add 3 drops of
Kalonji oil of warm water, this mixture three times a day. Treatment
continues forty days.

5) JOINT- PAINS AND ARTHRITIS, etc. : Take one spoon of vinegar,
add half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and mix two spoons honey, use twice
a day ( In the morning before the breakfast and in the night after
dinner )

6) DYSPEPISA INDIGESTION, GASES, STOMACH IRRITATION AND STOMACH
ACHE : In this case take one spoon of Ginger juice and half tea spoon
of kalonji oil and drink twice day. This treatment is also useful for
removing obesity. This medicine makes the patient slim.

7) OPTHALMIC DISEASE : Redness of eyes, cataract, eye’s trouble,
eye weakness and watering etc. Treatment- Take one cup of carrot juice
mix with half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and use this mixture twice a
day ( in the morning before breakfast and in the night after dinner)
, Treatment many continue for forty days . Avoid Pickle, Brinjal
8) LADIES SECRET DISEASES: (Leucorrhoea, White Discharge, Menses
discharges 2 to 4 times a month, stomach pain, back pain) Treatment –
Take mint (Pudina leaves) add two glasses of water and boil, then add
half tea spoon kalonji oil and drink one time in the morning before
the breakfast and in the night at the morning before breakfast and in
the night at the time going to bed. Treatment may continue for forty
days . Avoid Pickles, brinjal egg and fish .

9) LADIES DISEASES: ( Stoppage of menses for long term, stomach
pain): Take one cup of warm water add half tea spoon kalonji oil and
two spoons honey one time in the morning before the breakfast and in
the night after dinner. Treatment may continue for month . Avoid
potato and Brinjal .

10) CANCER: (Intestine cancer, Blood cancer, Throat cencer, etc.):
Take one glass grape juice and half tea spoon kalonji oil and use
thrice a day once in the morning before breakfast, after lunch and
after dinner. Take one Kg. barley and two Kg. wheat flour, mix
together, make bread (Roti) or Daliya of Harira and give to the
patient. Treatment may continue for forty days . Avoid Potato,
Arvee, Brinjal and Ambada vegetables.

11) POISONOUS VIRUS: Take one glass warm water, add one spoon date
(Khajur) powder half spoon kalonji oil and two spoons of kalonji oil
and two spoons on Honey, mix together and use thrice a day once in the
morning before breakfast, after lunch and after dinner. Treatment may
continue for forty days. Avoid Potato’s, Brinjal, Pulses (Chana ki
Dal), and Pulses (Masoor kid Dal).

12) REVITAL OF THE BODY , (Azme-e-Hali) : Take juices of Orange
(Malta) add half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and use it. Laziness and
tiredness will be removed.

13) MEMORY POWER: To increase the memory power and take 10 gm.
Mint (Pudina leaves) and boil it with the water and add half tea spoon
of Kalonji oil and use it twice a day. Treatment continues for twenty
days.

14) RENAL COLI (Kidney pain): Take 250 grams Kalonji grind it and
take one cup of honey, mix together. Out of this mixture take two
spoons mixture and add half cup water and add half tea spoon of
kalonji oil use it once a day. Treatment may continue for twenty
days.

15) NAUSEA OR VOMITING: Take one spoon of Caration powder and add
half tea spoon kalonji oil and boil it. Now in this warm mixture add
mint (Pudina leaves) & use thrice a day.

16) FRESHNESS AND HANDSOMENESS: Take one spoon of olive oil. Mix
together with half tea spoon of kalonji oil and rub it on the face.
After one hour wash it with soap water. Treatment may continue for
one week.

17) GENERAL WEAKNESS: Take half tea spoon of kalonji oil and add
one spoon honey. Mix together and use it once a day. General weakness
and other diseases will be removed.

18) TREATMENT OF SWELLING ON VITAL ORGAN: On swelling below thigh
and pulse, first wash it with soap water and dry. Rub the Kalonji oil
on the swelling part and keep it as it is for the next day morning.
Treatment may continue for three days.

19) LEPROSY: Take apple juice and Kalonji oil, First rub apple
juice and then Kalonji oil one by one the effected part.

20) TUMOUR: Rub the Kalonji oil on the effected part and drink half
tea spoon of Kalonji oil once. Treatment may continue of fifteen days.

21) HEADACHE: Rub Kalonji oil on the forehead and near ears, and
also drink half tea spoon Kalonji oil twice a day.

22) CHEST IRRITATION AND STOMACH TROUBLE: Take half tea spoon of
Kalonji oil mixed with a cup of milk and use this mixture twice daily.
Treatment may continue for 3 days.


23) HICCUPS: Take one big spoon cream (Malai) Mixed with 2 drops of
Kalonji oil and drink in the morning and in the night. Treatment may
continue for seven days.

24) BLOOD PRESSURE: - In any hot drink tea/ coffee , add half tea
spoon of Kalonji oil and use this mixture twice a day. Also eat two
cloves of Garlic daily.

25) FALLING HAIRS PREMATURELY: Rub Lime Juice on the head and leave
it for fifteen minutes, then wash it with shampoo, after getting dried
rub the Kalonji oil all over the head. Falling hairs will be
controlled with in a week. Treatment may continue for one week.

26) BRAIN FEVER: Allow the vapours of Kalonji oil enter the body
through breath. Take one lemon juice and half tea spoon kalonji oil
and use for 3 days twice a day. From fourth day tea spoon kalonji oil
in one cup of decoction twice day.

27) KIDNEY TROUBLE, INFECTION IN THE KIDNEYS: Take half tea spoon of
Kalonji oil; add 2 grams Akar khara Powder, mix one spoon honey with
one cup of water and drink. This treatment is also useful for chronic
cough (Purani Khansi). Treatment may continue 21 days.


28) STOMACH ACHE OF THE CHILDRENS: Take two drops of Kalonji oil mix
it with mother’s milk or cow milk and give to the child. Kalonji oil
also should be rubbed on the ribs.


29) PILES, FLOW OF BLOOD, CONSTIPATION: Take half tea spoon of Kalonji
oil mixed with one cup of Decoction (Bleak tea) twice a day (once in
the morning before breakfast, and one in the night). Avoid hot and
spicy items.


30) SKIN DISEASES – (White/Black spots): In one cup of vinegar add
half spoon Kalonji oil and apply that on the affected area before
going to sleep in the night and take bath in the morning. Treatment
may continue until you get relief.


31) SIMPLE FEVER: Take half cup of water and add half lemon Juice
mixed with half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and use it twice a day.
Treatment may continue until you get relief. Avoid use of Rice.


32) ROUND WORMS AND TAPS WORMS IN THE STOMACH: Take half spoon Vinegar
mixed with half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and use it twice a day and
eat some coconut pieces. Avoid sugar items.


33) Stone in Kidney, Bladder and Uterus: Take one cup of warm water
and add two spoon of honey mixed with half tea spoon of Kalonji oil
and use that twice a day. (Once in the morning before the breakfast
and once in the night after dinner). Avoid tomatoes, spinach (Palak),
lemon diet, sitaphal for three years.


34) EPILEPSY: Take one cup of warm water and add two spoons of honey
mix them and add half tea spoon Kalonji oil use it twice a day. During
this treatment cold food should not be taken. Avoid guava, Banana,
Sitaphal for three years.


35) EAR DISEASES, EAR ACHE, FLOW OF PUS, LOW HEARING: Heat the Kalonji
oil and let it cool and put it two drops of cooled Kalonji oil in ear.


36) CRACKED HAND AND CRACK FOOT WITH BLOOD FLOW: Take one glass of
sweet lime (Mausambhi) Juice and add half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and
use this twice a day (In the morning before the breakfast and in the
night before going to bed). Avoid chicken, egg, brinjal. Use the
herbal ointment made of Kalonji.


37) FACIAL PROBLEMS, PIMPLES, RED GRANULES AND ANY TYPE OF SPOTS: Take
one cup of Orange Mausambhi (sweet lime) juice or Pineapple juice and
add half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and use this mixture twice a day (in
the morning before the breakfast and in the night before going to
bed). Also use Kalonji Pimple cream for application. Treatment may
continue for four weeks. Avoid hot eatable items.


38) DENTAL DISEASES: Fall of teeth prematurely, weakness of the teeth,
flow of blood from the teeth, bad smell of the mouth, swelling on
gums: Take one cup of curd and half tea spoon of Kalonji oil, use this
mixture twice a day (once in the morning before the breakfast and in
at night after dinner). Also use Kalonji Herbal Tooth powder.


39) MALE RELATED DISEASES: Night discharge: Take one cup of apple
juice and add half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and use this mixture twice
a day in the morning before breakfast and in the night after dinner.
Daily four drops of Kalonji oil should be rubbed on the head.
Treatment may continue for 21 days. Avoid hot/spicy eatable items.


40) BLOOD DEFICIENCY (Anemia) and Ulcer in the Intestine: Take a
branch of mint (Pudina Leaves), mix with water, boil it and make a cup
of juice and add half tea spoon of kalonji oil and use this mixture
twice a day (once in the morning and at evening). Treatment may
continue for 21 days.



41) JAUNDICE: Take one cup of milk, add half tea spoon of kalonji oil
and use this mixture twice a day (one in the morning and once after
the dinner). Treatment may continue for a week. Avoid fatty and sour
eatable items.


42) SWELLING OF THROAT, LUNGS PROBLEM: Take one cup of warm water and
add two spoons of honey and half tea spoon of Kalonji oil. Use this
mixture twice a day (Once in the morning before breakfast and in the
night after dinner, before going to bed). Treatment may continue for
10 days. Avoid ice Cream, ice water, coconuts, lemon, orange and
Mausambhi.


43) COUGH: Take one cup of warm water, add two spoons of honey mix
with half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and use this mixture twice a day
once in the morning before breakfast, and once after the dinner.
Treatment may continue for two weeks. Avoid cold stuff items.


44) HEART ATTACK, SWELLING ON BREATHING VEINS: Blockage of heart
valve, breathing problem, cold sweating, pressure on heart. Take one
cup of Goat’s milk add half tea spoon of Kalonji oil. Use this mixture
twice a day, once in the morning before the breakfast and once in the
evening before going to bed. Treatment may continue for 21 days. Avoid
fatty items.


45) MATERNITY: The mental weakness after the child born, tiredness,
and bleeding related diseases: Takeone cup of cucumber juice, add half
tea spoon of Kalonji oil. Use this mixture twice a day once before the
breakfast in the morning and once in the night before going to bed.
Treatment may continue for 40 days.


46) DIGESTION OF FOOD, COLOR OF FACE ETC: Treatment: Mix 2 spoons of
ginger, half spoon of Kalonji oil and one spoon of sugar. Use this
mixture twice a day (Morning and evening). Continue the treatment for
10 days. Avoid gas creating food.


47) BURNING MICTURIATION: Take one cup sweet lime (Mausambhi) juice,
add half tea spoon of Kalonji oil. Use this mixture twice a day (in
the morning before breakfast and at night before going to bed).
Treatment may continue for 10 days. Avoid hot stuff items chilly and
sour food items.


48) WORMS IN THE STOMACH: Mix one spoon vinegar with half tea spoon of
Kalonji oil. Take thrice a day (In the morning before the breakfast,
after noon and at night). Continue the treatment for 10 days.


49) JOINT PAIN: Swelling on ankle and other pains in the joints. Take
one spoon vinegar and two spoons of honey and add half tea spoon of
kalonji oil. Use this mixture two times a day and also massage with
same (Til) oil. Avoid gas producing elements for 21 days.


50) BALDNESS OF HEAD: Rub the kalonji oil on the head twice a day and
use a mixture of one cup of coffee mixed with half tea spoon of
Kalonji oil and use it twice a day.


51) TO MAINTAIN HEALTHY BODY: 1 Kg. of wheat flour add half tea spoon
of kalonji oil and make roti and eat. Insha-Allah! You will remain
healthy.


52) MADNESS AND PILES: Take half tea spoon of kalonji oil and mix with
cold water and drink. If you mix the same (TIL) oil with boiled water
and let it cool and drink, Insha-Allah piles will be cured. For SNAKE
POISON same process should be adopted. Avoid Guava, Banana and
Sitaphal.


53) TOOTH PAIN AND SWELLING OF GUMS: Take one spoon of vinegar and add
half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and apply on affected area for two or
three minutes and rinse the mouth. Repeat this process twice a day.
Treatment may continue for one week.


54) SEVERE COLD: Take half cup of water and half tea spoon of Kalonji
oil and quarter spoon of Olive oil and mix together and filter. Put
two drops of filtered mixture into the nose. This method is the best
for cold. Use this process twice a day.


55) SKIN DISEASE RELEATED TO PIMPLES BOILS: Before going to bed apply
Kalonji oil on the affected areas of the body and sleep, in the
morning wash with soap. This treatment may continue of 21 days.


56) TO KEEP THE FACE AND SKIN SMOOTH: Take two big spoons of honey and
half spoon of Kalonji oil and half spoon of Olive oil and mix
altogether. Use this mixture two times a day in the morning and before
going to bed. Treatment may continue for 40 days.


57) PILES: Take one spoon of Vinegar and add half tea spoon of Kalonji
oil and apply on piles. This process may be used twice a day.


58) DISEASES OF LIVER & ABDOMENT: Take 200 grams of honey and half tea
spoon of Kalonji oil and drink this mixture half in the morning before
breakfast and half in the evening. Use this process for one month.
Avoid Tamarind items.


59) MENSTRUATIONS PROBLEMS: Take one spoon of honey and mix with half
tea spoon of Kalonji oil and drink one tea spoon in the morning before
the breakfast and one tea spoon in the evening. Use this process for
two weeks.


60) ANYTYPE OF SWELLING: Heat required quantity of Kalonji oil and
apply on affected area. Half tea spoon of Kalonji oil to be consumed
twice a day.


61) POISONOUS ATTACKS: Eat two pieces of fig and take half spoon of
Kalonji oil and mix with two spoons of honey and drink, with this
mixture you will be protected from snake bites. Don’t allow the
patient to sleep for four hours. Use this mixture for seven days.


62) HIGH TEMPERATURE: Take half tea spoon of Kalonji oil with
decoction (tea without Milk or Black tea). Continue till the
temperature comes to normal.


63) BURNS: 30 grams of Olive oil and 5 grams of Kalonji oil, 15 grams
of Calamus (BUCH) and 80 grams of Mehendi leaves. Mix together and
apply on affected parts.


64) OBESITY: Half tea spoon of Kalonji oil, two spoons of honey mixed
in luke warm water and take twice a day. Avoid taking rice.


65) DANDRUFF: Mix 10 grams of Kalonji oil, 30 grams of Olive oil, and
30 grams of Mehendi powder Heat of a while. Apply after the past
becomes cool.


66) SOUND SLEEP: After dinner take half tea spoon of Kalonji oil with
one spoon of honey, you will get sound sleep.


67) FOR ACTIVENESS: Half tea spoon of Kalonji oil with 2 spoon honey
daily before breakfast.


68) FOR INCREASING MOTHER’S MILK: One cup milk two drops of kalonji
oil in the morning before breakfast and at night before going to bed.


69) LEPROSY, WHITE SPOTS OF ANY KIND: Take half spoon of Kalonji oil
in one cup of orange juice and use this portion twice a day or take
one spoon vinegar (home made), one spoon honey and half spoon kalonji
oil mixed together and use this mixture twice a day. Treatment may
continue until the symptoms disappear.


70) SKIN DISEASES: In one cup of vinegar add half tea spoon of Kalonji
oil and apply this mixture on the affected areas before going to bed.
Treatment may continue until you get relief.


71) STOMACH PAIN: (all types): In a glass of sweet lime (Mausambhi)
juice add to spoon of homey and half tea spoon of Kalonji oil and use
this mixture twice a day. Avoid all gas elements. Treatment may
continue for 20 day.


72) STONE IN KEDNEY: In a cup of warm water add two tea spoons of
honey and half tea spoon of Kalonji oil, dilute and use this mixture
twice a day. Avoid spinach, lemon, sweet lime (mausambhi), tomatoes.
Treatment should be continued until the stone is discharged.


73) FROM HEAD TO TOE: Mix one cup of orange juice with half tea spoon
of Kalonji oil, take morning before breakfast and at night bed time.
Treatment may continue for four months.


74) SWELLING OF STOMACH: Mix 3 grams of Ajwan, 3 grams Methi, 4 drops
of Kalonji oil together. Take this mixture before breakfast and before
dinner


75) JOINT PAINS, BACK ACHE & NECK PAIN: Eat two pieces of dry fig and
add 4 drops of kalonji oil in one cup of Milk. Do not eat anything
till two hours. Treatment is to be continued for 2 months. Avoid
potatoes, tomatoes, green chills and bottlegaud.


76) PERSISTENT COUGH: Mix 10 grams of Akal kara, 200 grams honey, 100
grams of Kalonji oil together. Take the mixture, one spoon thrice a
day. Restrict from ice cream, fridge water, custard apple. Treatment
for 40 days.


77) SORIASIS: Mix juice of six limes with 50 grams of kalonji oil
together rub on the affected places.


78) UTERUS PROBLEMS: ? bunch of pudina juice, 2 spoon of Misri powder,
? tea spoon of Kalonji oil, mix and use before breakfast. This
treatment may continue for 40 days.


79) STAMMERING: Mix half tea spoon of Kalonji oil 2 spoons of honey
and keep it on the tongue twice a day.


80) IN ALL EAR DISEASES: Heat one teaspoon of Kalonji oil with one
spoonful of olive oil and let it cool. Put two drops of the mixture at
bed time, you will get immediate relief.


81) TOOTH ACHE, CAVITIES TOOTH DECAY: At the time of going to bed put
a piece of cotton which is soaked in Kalonji oil, on affected area.
Continue this treatment at least for seven days. Dental problems will
vanish.


82) BLEEDING RELATED DISEASES OF WOMEN: White discharge etc. Put half
bunch of mint (Pudina) in two cups of water and reduce it tone cup by
heating it. Add 2 spoon powder of misree + ? spoon kalonji oil take
this mixture before breakfast. Treatment may continue for 40 days.


83) FAIRNESS OF FACE: Take 50 grams of Olive oil and add 50 grams of
Kalonji oil. Take half teaspoon in the morning before breakfast. Skin
will be fair and glowing pink. (Note: - Pregnant women are not allowed
to take this medicine).


84) TREATMENT FOR BALDNESS: Take 20 grams Kalonji oil and 20 grams
powder of Mehandi, Add 60 grams of vinegar (Sirka) and rub on the bald
head. Wash head after one hour. Insha-Allah baldness will vanish and
also useful for recovery of damage hair. Note: - this process may be
used once in a week.


85) SINUS, COLD: Take one spoon honey and add ? spoon Kalonji oil. Use
this mixture daily in the morning and evening. Avoid cold stuff items.
At night when going to bed, put one drop of Kalonji oil in to the nose
Insha-Allah you will get relief from SINUS and Persistent Cold.


86) BEAUTIFULNESS: Take 10 grams of `Sunheri gearu’ and add four drops
of Kalonji oil rub this past at night before going to bed. In the
morning wash the face with like warm water and soap (skin care)
Insha-Allah your skin will look smooth and beautiful.


87) DISEASES OF ABDOMEN: (Increase of Harnea): Take one tablespoon of
juice of Karela and add half tea spoon of Kalonji oil. Use this
mixture in the morning before breakfast and before lunch and before
dinner.


88) SEXUAL DISORDERS: (Weakness): Take two teaspoon of honey and add
one drop of Kalonji oil with one drop of `Jaiphal oil’. Use this
mixture daily before going to bed. Treatment may continue for two
weeks.


89) HEART WEAKNESS: (Heart Trouble): Mix 4 drops of garlic juice add
four drops of kalonji oil to this add some misree and water and take
this mixture daily.


90) GASES AND ACIDITY: Mix one tola of ginger juice with half tola
Kalonji oil, add some salt and water. Use mixture for immediate
relief.


91) DYSENTERY, DIARRHEA: Mix one tola esapgol with half cup of curd
and ? tea spoon of Kalonji oil, use three to four times a day


92) LIVER DISORDER AND JAUNDICE: Put one tola of Ajwan in water and
keep in shade at day time and in the dew drops at night time. Next day
filter and pour ? spoon of Kalonji oil. Take once in day. Or take two
tola leaves of Mehandi and put in the water at night time. In the
morning after filtering add 14 pieces of Kalonji seeds, one spoon of
honey and ? spoon of Kalonji oil. Use this mixture once in a day.


93) PILES: Take 50 grams of powder of Mehendi leaves add 250 grams
pure Olive oil and boil them for 5 minutes. Pour three drops of
Kalonji oil with the help cotton. Apply this past of the affected
area. This process may be used twice a day that is in the morning and
at the bed time. Also eat 4-5 figs with ? spoon kalonji oil.


94) BURNING MICTURITION, URINE DEFICIENCY, BURNING SENSATION IN URINE:
Take ? liter of milk and add ? spoon of Kalonji oil and one spoon
honey. Take this mixture twice a day Or two tola coth boiled in water,
add ? spoon of Kalonji oil and take this mixture.


95) ECZEMA : Mix 10-10 grams of Sona mahi and Kalonji oil
kiste-e-Shirin with 500 grams vinegar (sirka) after boiling filter it
add some Kalonji oil and apply on the affected area.


96) HALF SIDE HEADACHE: Put one drop of Kalonji oil in nostril (nose)
opposite to the headache area and also take half spoon of kalonji oil
daily.


97) POLIO AND PARALYSES: (Laqhwa): Daily put one drop of Kalonji oil
in the nostril, which is opposite to Polio side, use half spoon of
Kalonji oil with one spoon of honey.


98) SHIVERING: Daily take two half boiled eggs and follow the
treatment as mention for POLIO and Paralyses aliment.


99) WEAK MEMORY: (Absent mindedness): In case of absent
mindedness crush seven seeds of Kalonji. Add one spoon of honey and ?
spoon of Kalonji oil. Use this mixture daily. Also chew 3-4 pieces of
cardamom in a day.


100) CATARACT: Mix ? spoon of Kalonji with tea in the morning and in
the milk at night. Take twice a day.


101) STOMACH PAIN: Mix ? spoon of Kalonji oil with little (Pinch) of
salt in half glass of warm water and drink it. It is useful for
stomach pain.


102) HEARING PROBLEMS, EAR PAIN, And FLOW OF PUSS: Mix equal
quantity of pure olive oil, almond and Kalonji oil and heat them. Put
one drop in each ear of this mixture twice a day in the morning and
bed time.


103) TOOTH ACHE AND SWELLING OF GUMS: Apply one drop of clove oil
with Kalonji oil on the affected area 2-3 minutes for cleaning the
teeth, heat lohari salt and crush it the add few drops of olive oil
and rinse the teeth with it.


104) COUGH BRONCHITIS: Crush one tola of Alsee and boil in ? liter
of water Boil the water to half, filter it. Add ? spoon of kalonji oil
and two spoon honey. Use this mixture twice a day and avoid cold
stuffs.


105) ASTAMA: Mix little (Pinch) salt, ? of Kalonji oil with one
spoon pure Ghee and apply/rub on the chest and throat. Simultaneously
drink mixture of ? spoon Kalonji oil and two spoon of honey twice a
day.


106) GASTICE TROUBLES: Take 60 grams Ajwan ? spoon. Kalonji oil and
mix lime juice let it dry in the Sun add 10 grams black salt by
crushing and use daily once in evening.


107) FOR HICCUPS: Eat ? spoon Kalonji oil and 7 seeds of Kalonji with butter.


108) NAUSEA AND VOMITING: Mix and preserve, 100 grams pure vinegar
(sirka) 200 grams sugar and ? spoon of Kalonji oil. Chew it Nasuea and
vomiting will be cured.


109) STOMACH PAIN (SINGLE) : Mix ? spoon of Kalonji oil with little
(Pinch) of salt in half glass of warm water and drink it. It is useful
for stomach pain.


110) CONSTIPATION: Two tola of jaggery (Red Sugar) 4 grams sona
makki mixed with half big glass of warm water add ? spoon Kalonji oil
and drink it before going to bed.


111) MEDICINE FOR DIGESTION: Mix 4 tola of Ajwan, ? spoon Kalonji
oil with lime juice let it dry in the sun use one pinch after every
meal. Avoid gas creating foods.


112) WORMS IN THE STOMACH: Take 14 crushed seeds of Kalonji, 2 drops
of Kalonji oil and one drop of pure vinegar (sirka) mix it with ?
litter of water. Deink it. worms of the stomach will be
removed /discharged.

1. Coffee is the #1 source of antioxidants in the American diet

While fruits and veggies are still the richest sources of
antioxidants, it turns out that for Americans, coffee is the main
basis of antioxidant consumption (according to the Institute of Coffee
Studies at Vanderbilt University).
Black tea and bananas came in second and third place, respectively.
Surprisingly,
both caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee provide similar amounts of
antioxidants.

2. Coffee increases your metabolism

Studies also show that coffee is very beneficial in terms of weight
loss. It is a common misconception that coffee is an
appetite suppressant, however, your morning cup can significantly
speed up metabolism by about 10 percent.
The National Research Council on Diet and Health found that metabolic
rates will be highest during the first
three hours following consumption. Just make sure to skip the added
sugars, syrups,
and whipped toppings found in many store-bought coffee drinks.

3. Coffee can improve short-term memory

According to studies published in The Journal of the American Medical
Association, caffeine is a cognitive stimulant
that actually boosts brain functioning. Furthermore, coffee reduces
levels of beta amyloid,
a protein in the brain that is responsible for Alzheimer’s disease.

4. Coffee lowers the rates of some cancers

According to WebMD, coffee drinkers are 50 percent less likely to get
liver cancer. By drinking 2 cups per day,
you’re also slashing your risk of getting colon cancer by 25 percent.
Some studies have also
found ties to lower rates of breast and skin cancers as well

5. Coffee can reduce risk for Type 2 diabetes

WebMD also asserts that coffee contains chemicals that lower blood
sugar, making heavy coffee drinkers half
as likely to get diabetes as light to non-coffee drinkers. 1-3 cups
per day can reduce the risk for diabetes
by single digits, but people who drink 6 cups or more per day can
slash their chances by up to 54 percent.

6. Coffee is actually good for your teeth

We all know that one of the biggest cons of drinking coffee is a
stained smile, but the beverage can also have a positive
effect on teeth. According to a 2009 article published in the Wall
Street Journal, people who drink coffee are
less likely to have cavities. Roasted coffee beans have antibacterial
effects against microorganisms
like Streptococcus, which play a hand in causing tooth decay :-)

7. Coffee can help prevent/stop headaches

Have you ever wondered why caffeine is one of the main ingredients in
migraine medication like Excedrin Migraine?
WebMD explains that blood vessels increase in size during a migraine--
caffeine works to decrease the size
of blood vessels before they can affect nerves in the brain. So,
drinking coffee in the early
stages of a headache can help minimize the severity later on.

The Chinese classifies things in the universe, including your body into contrasting pairs of yin and yang. In the case of your body, nerves, hair, muscles, body tissues and fluids are ‘yin substances’.
Activities, including breathing, digesting and transforming food into body tissues are the ‘yang’ aspect.

The relationship between Yin and Yang is similar to that between the wax and the flame of a candle. The wax is the Yin aspect (the substance), the flame is the Yang (activity and heat). These two aspects depend on each other. You need wax to provide fuel for the flame, just as you need the substance of the body to provide energy for any sort of activity. Hence, the wax/substance is consumed by the flame/activity. At the same time, you need the flame/activity in order to create the changes needed to make and repair body tissue. Yin and Yang cannot exist without each other.

This comparison is not complete because a candle has a fixed amount of substance so that once the wax is consumed the candle dies. A human being takes in food and drink and air on a daily basis in order to keep the flame alive. Still, human beings also have a limited life span: their substance gets worn down with age and the flame eventually goes out.

You may have heard the phrase, “burn the candle at both ends”, referring to people who try to cram a lot of activities into their life. Like the candle, their activities [the flame] are consuming more yin substances [wax] than the body can provide. That is why you hear of such people dropping dead from heart attack, stroke or exhaustion- shortening their life. To have a long, healthy life, we have to keep yin and yang in balance.
- http://jumblebox.webs.com/

DNA: The Making

Lyle Sykes










For more than 50 years after the science of genetics was established and the patterns of inheritance through genes were clarified, the largest questions remained unanswered: How are the chromosomes and their genes copied so exactly from cell to cell, and how do they direct the structure and behavior of living things? This paper will discuss those questions and the people that answered them.
Two American geneticists, George Wells Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum, provided one of the first important clues in the early 1940s. Working with the fungi Neurospora and Penicillium, they found that "genes direct the formation of enzymes through the units of which they are composed." (Annas 1996) Each unit (a polypeptide) is produced by a specific gene. This work launched studies into the chemical nature of the gene and helped to establish the field of molecular genetics.
"The fact that chromosomes were almost entirely composed of two kinds of chemical substances, protein and nucleic acids, had long been known. Partly because of the close relationship established between genes and enzymes, which are proteins, protein at first seemed the fundamental substance that determined heredity." (Goetinck 1995) "In 1944, however, the Canadian bacteriologist Oswald Theodore Avery proved that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) performed this role. He extracted DNA from one strain of bacteria and introduced it into another strain. The second strain not only acquired characteristics of the first but passed them on to subsequent generations. By this time DNA was known to be made up of substances called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a phosphate, a sugar known as deoxyribose, and any one of four nitrogen-containing bases. The four nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C)."(Caldwell 1996)
"In 1953, putting together the accumulated chemical knowledge, geneticists James Dewey Watson of the U.S. and Francis Harry Compton Crick of Great Britain worked out the structure of DNA. This knowledge immediately provided the means of understanding how hereditary information is copied. Watson and Crick found that the DNA molecule is composed of two long strands in the form of a double helix, somewhat resembling a long, spiral ladder. The strands, or sides of the ladder, are made up of alternating phosphate and sugar molecules. The nitrogen bases, joining in pairs, act as the rungs. Each base is attached to a sugar molecule and is linked by a hydrogen bond to a complementary base on the opposite strand." (Caldwell 1996) "Adenine always binds to thymine, and guanine always binds to cytosine." (Annas 1996) "To make a new, identical copy of the DNA molecule, the two strands need only unwind and separate at the bases (which are weakly bound); with more nucleotides available in the cell, new complementary bases ca
n link with each separated strand, and two double helixes result. Since the "backbone" of every chromosome is a single long, double-stranded molecule of DNA, the production of two identical double helixes will result in the production of two identical chromosomes." (Caldwell 1996)
"The DNA backbone is actually a great deal longer than the chromosome but is tightly coiled up within it. This packing is now known to be based on minute particles of protein known as nucleosomes, just visible under the most powerful electron microscope. The DNA is wound around each nucleosome in succession to form a beaded structure. The structure is then further folded so that the beads associate in regular coils. Thus, the DNA has a "coiled-coil" configuration, like the filament of an electric light bulb." (Popper 1996)
"After the discoveries of Watson and Crick, the question that remained was how the DNA directs the formation of proteins, compounds central to all the processes of life. Proteins are not only the major components of most cell structures, they also control virtually all the chemical reactions that occur in living matter. The ability of a protein to act as part of a structure, or as an enzyme affecting the rate of a particular chemical reaction, depends on its molecular shape. This shape, in turn, depends on its composition. Every protein is made up of one or more components called polypeptides, and each polypeptide is a chain of subunits called amino acids. Twenty different amino acids are commonly found in polypeptides." (Caldwell 1996) "The number, type, and order of amino acids in a chain ultimately determine the structure and function of the protein of which the chain is a part." (Marx 1996)
"Since proteins were shown to be products of genes, and each gene was shown to be composed of sections of DNA strands, scientists reasoned that a genetic code must exist by which the order of the four nucleotide bases in the DNA could direct the sequence of amino acids in the formation of polypeptides." (Barinaga 1995) "In other words, a process must exist by which the nucleotide bases transmit information that dictates protein synthesis. This process would explain how the genes control the forms and functions of cells, tissues, and organisms. Because only four different kinds of nucleotides occur in DNA, but 20 different kinds of amino acids occur in proteins, the genetic code could not be based on one nucleotide specifying one amino acid. Combinations of two nucleotides could only specify 16 amino acids (4² = 16), so the code must be made up of combinations of three or more successive nucleotides. The order of the triplets-or, as they came to be called, codons-could define the order of the amino acids in the
polypeptide." (Snaz 1996)
"Ten years after Watson and Crick reported the DNA structure, the genetic code was worked out and proved biologically. Its solution depended on a great deal of research involving another group of nucleic acids, the ribonucleic acids (RNA). The specification of a polypeptide by the DNA was found to take place indirectly, through an intermediate molecule known as messenger RNA (mRNA). Part of the DNA somehow uncoils from its chromosome packing, and the two strands become separated for a portion of their length. One of them serves as a template upon which the mRNA is formed (with the aid of an enzyme called RNA polymerase). The process is very similar to the formation of a complementary strand of DNA during the division of the double helix, except that RNA contains uracil (U) instead of thymine as one of its four nucleotide bases, and the uracil (which is similar to thymine) joins with the adenine in the formation of complementary pairs. Thus, a sequence adenine-guanine-adenine-thymine-cytosine (AGATC) in the cod
ing strand of the DNA produces a sequence uracil-cytosine-uracil-adenine-guanine (UCUAG) in the mRNA." (Witten 1996)
"The production of a strand of messenger RNA by a particular sequence of DNA is called transcription. While the transcription is still taking place, the mRNA begins to detach from the DNA. Eventually one end of the new mRNA molecule, which is now a long, thin strand, becomes inserted into a small structure called a ribosome, in a manner much like the insertion of a thread into a bead. As the ribosome bead moves along the mRNA thread, the end of the thread may be inserted into a second ribosome, and so on." (Lemonick 1996) Using a very high-powered microscope and special staining techniques, scientists can photograph mRNA molecules with their associated ribosome beads.
"Ribosomes are made up of protein and RNA. A group of ribosomes linked by mRNA is called a polyribosome or polysome. As each ribosome passes along the mRNA molecule, it "reads" the code, that is, the sequence of nucleotide bases on the mRNA. The reading, called translation, takes place by means of a third type of RNA molecule called transfer RNA (tRNA), which is produced on another segment of the DNA. On one side of the tRNA molecule is a triplet of nucleotides. On the other side is a region to which one specific amino acid can become attached (with the aid of a specific enzyme). The triplet on each tRNA is complementary to one particular sequence of three nucleotides-the codon-on the mRNA strand. Because of this complementary, the triplet is able to "recognize" and adhere to the codon. For example, the sequence uracil-cytosine-uracil (UCU) on the strand of mRNA attracts the triplet adenine-guanine-adenine (AGA) of the tRNA. The tRNA triplet is known as the anticodon." (Witten 1995)
"As tRNA molecules move up to the strand of mRNA in the ribosome beads, each bears an amino acid. The sequence of codons on the mRNA therefore determines the order in which the amino acids are brought by the tRNA to the ribosome. In association with the ribosome, the amino acids are then chemically bonded together into a chain, forming a polypeptide. The new chain of polypeptide is released from the ribosome and folds up into a characteristic shape that is determined by the sequence of amino acids. The shape of a polypeptide and its electrical properties, which are also determined by the amino acid sequence, dictate whether it remains single or becomes joined to other polypeptides, as well as what chemical function it subsequently fulfills within the organism." (Witten 1996)
"In bacteria, viruses, and blue-green algae, the chromosome lies free in the cytoplasm, and the process of translation may start even before the process of transcription (mRNA formation) is completed. In higher organisms, however, the chromosomes are isolated in the nucleus and the ribosomes are contained only in the cytoplasm. Thus, translation of mRNA into protein can occur only after the mRNA has become detached from the DNA and has moved out of the nucleus." (O'Brien 1996)
As funding for research becomes available for scientist, they continue to study the DNA molecule with hopes of find the secrets that are hidden with in our own bodies. Their findings continue to aid us in cures and the prevention of many illnesses that years ago we couldn't solve. Hopefully the research will soon pay off, with the cure for cancer or Alzheimer's Disease, for instance. Only time will tell what discoveries will be made to help those that are ill. The sad thing is, most that are ill have very little time to spare. That is why the DNA research is important now, to save the ones that aren't in need.

Bibliography


Annas, George J. 1996, "Genetic Prophecy and Genetic Privacy"; SIRS 1996 Electronic Only, Article 103, January 1996, pg. 18+.

Barinaga, Marcia 1995, "Missing Alzheimer's Gene Found"; SIRS 1996 Medical Science, Electronic Only, Article 201, August 18, 1995, pg. 917-918.

Caldwell, Mark 1996, "Beyond the Lab Rat"; SIRS 1996 Medical Science, Article 69, May 1996, pg. 70-75.

Goetinck, Sue 1995, "Genetics: Gene Whiz!"; SIRS 1996 Medical Science, Article 28, October 16, 1995, pg. 6D+.

Lemonick, Michael D. 1996, "Hair Apparent"; Time, v.147, June 10, 1996, pg. 69.

Marx, Jean 1996, "A Second Breast Cancer Susceptibility Gene Is Found"; SIRS 1996 Medical Science, Electronic Only, Article 197, January 5, 1996, pg. 30-31.

O'Brien, Claire 1996, "New Tumor Suppresser Found in Pancreatic Cancer"; SIRS 1996 Medical Science, Electronic Only, Article 195, January 19, 1996, pg. 294.

Popper, Andrew 1996, "Digging for Victims of Bosnia's War"; U.S. News and World Report, v. 121, August 12, 1996, pg. 40-41.

Sanz, Cynthia 1996, "A Son's Crusade"; People Weekly, v.45, April 8, 1996, pg. 126-8+.

Witten, Mark 1995, "Solving Alzheimer's"; SIRS 1996 Medical Science, Article 30, November 1995, pg. 35+.

Witten, Mark 1996, "Cancer, Fate & Family"; SIRS 1996 Medical Science, Article 47, Jan./Feb. 1996, pg. 60-73.

Down Syndrome-

Down Syndrome is the name for babies born with a disorder
related to their chromosomes. It is caused when meiosis occurs
and an error occurs in the cells development. The reason for
this defect is often because the parent is over 40 or for some
other reason their meiosis is not "Up to par."

The actual defect is an extra chromosome is developed during
cell development. The abnormal development results in 47
chromosomes rather than the usual 46 (23 from each parent).

This extra gene causes problems in the child's physical and
mental development. There are an estimated 5000 babies with Down
Syndrome born in America every single year. While the chances of
having a Down Syndrome baby are slim, (1 in 1000) it is still an
issue that to-be parents should discuss and prepare for.

People with Down Syndrome are identified by many physical
characteristics. Some of these are: larger or almond shaped eyes
(sometimes Brushfield spots on the irises), smaller than normal
features, such as smaller ears or a smaller nose, short stubby
fingers, a single palmar crease on their hands, and having
exceptional social intelligence.

Because Down Syndrome is cause by a cell abnormality during
meiosis, it can not really be proven that Down Syndrome is
hereditary. A perfectly healthy mother could have a Down
Syndrome baby even though there was never any sign of the
disorder in her pedigree. There are however, three different
kinds of Down Syndrome. 95% of Down Syndrome babies have Trisomy
21. This is the presence of extra genetic material on the 21st
pair of chromosomes. Around 4% have what is called
Translocation. This is where the extra chromosome 21 decided to
break away and attach itself to another chromosome. The last 1%
is made up of those with Mosaicism. This is where some cells
have Trisomy 21 while others do not.

There is no cure for Down Syndrome. There is also not way to
prevent it. Once faced with the fact you have a Down Syndrome
baby however, the baby will need various kinds of checks and
treatment to help it live. Down Syndrome babies have a very high
rate of congenital heart defects. In fact 30% to 50% have these
defects. An endocardiogram is a way to check babies for any
signs of defect and start the child on treatment. Down Syndrome
babies also require more effort and time in teaching them things
because they learn at a much slower rate.

In the case that I find out I am going to be the father of a
Down Syndrome child, I would keep the child even though it would
be very hard on me and my wife. Even though our child would not
be the next Einstein or even close, a life is a life regardless
of its intelligence and I would do my best to guide my new-born
child through life.

There are thousands of cases of sex linked and sex influenced diseases worldwide. These diseases can range from a social inconvenience, to a fatal ailment. In sex linked diseases, like Muscular Dystrophy, hemophilia and color blindness, only males are affected. When a man infected with a sex linked disease has children, all his sons are normal, but all of his daughters are carriers. When a carrier woman and an uninfected man have children, half of the sons are normal, and half of the sons are affected; half of the daughters are carriers and half of the daughters are normal. Only males are affected because the sex linked diseases affect the X chromosome. Males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome, so they need to use that X, whether it is flawed or not. Females on the other hand, have two X chromosomes, so if one is defective, they can use their second X chromosome. Duchenne¹s Muscular Dystrophy(DMD) is defined as ³a genetic disease characterized by defective muscle cells that can not produce a p
rotein called dystrophin² (Science News 380). In patients of hemophilia, there is a deficiency of a protein needed for blood clotting, causing this hereditary bleeding disorder. In red/green color blindness, the broadest form of color blindness that affects six percent of the population, the cones in the retina that receive green light do not function properly. Unlike sex linked diseases, sex influenced diseases are not reserved solely for the male. However, the diseases occur in males much more frequently than in females. This is because sex influenced diseases occur from imbalances in testosterone, much more highly concentrated in males. Baldness and gout are two diseases that are a result of these hormonal imbalances. Baldness is defined as the lack or loss of hair. Permanent baldness strikes on a hereditary basis because the hormonal imbalances tend to be passed from generation to generation. Gout is a hereditary metabolic disorder that involves recurrent acute attacks of severe inflammation of joi
nts.
Sex linked diseases are born when sex genes, that compose two of the 46 chromosomes, are mutated by an error in copying genes in reproduction. One of these sex linked diseases is Duchenne¹s Muscular Dystrophy. DMD is a disease that has rightfully been gaining some headlines recently, as the disease is taking the lives of young children. Several cures have been brought up recently in the medical society, but none have paid any dividends. According to the Muscular Dystrophy Association, one in every 2500 boys are infected with muscular dystrophy. The defective gene is found at the top of the X chromosome. This gene is the largest known to exist. In patients of DMD, this gene is either missing or severely mutilated. The symptoms of DMD are fatal. By age eleven, the victims weaken fast. Normally, muscle deterioration begins in the lower legs and then moves up the body of the patient. Generally, victims are in their early twenties when they die from either heart failure or diaphragm failure.(The dia
phragm is the muscle that makes breathing possible.) One mother of a Duchenne¹s Muscular Dystrophy patient says succinctly, ³Eventually these kids get bedridden and then they die.²(Grady 87) It is imperative to find a cure for Duchenne¹s Muscular Dystrophy so we can save the lives of thousands of innocent children.
One of the major researchers working on a cure for DMD is Dr. Peter K. Law of the Cell Therapy Research Foundation. Law has been in the field for over twenty years and has made many discoveries. In 1972, Law¹s doctoral thesis proved that dystrophic muscle cells have abnormal cell membranes. This showed that the disease was caused by a muscle defect, not a nerve defect as was previously thought. Since it was clear that it was a muscle defect, Law tried to transplant both whole and minced muscle into mice. The minced muscle proved to be too damaged to operate, and the whole muscle was so large that it died before an adequate blood and nerve supply was developed. At this point, since the whole muscle was too large but was the only feasible solution, he decided to transplant whole muscles of a baby mouse into an adult mouse. This muscle was not damaged, because it was not minced, and it was not too large, because the baby muscle is considerably smaller than an adult muscle. Not only did the mouse survive,
but normal function was restored to diseased adult muscle. Since the transplantation of muscle in mice was so successful, Dr. Law tried to find something along those lines that would work in a human. He found a solution; myoblasts. A myoblast is a mature muscle cell. It is a long thin fiber that can be more than an inch long. Unlike cells of other types, myoblasts have over 200 nuclei. When they are damaged, the myoblasts call upon a reservoir of satellite cells; small immature cells that nestle inside the muscle fiber¹s outer sheath. Satellite cells are the key to muscle repair and regeneration.The satellites leave the fiber, divide and then flatten into spindle shaped forms- the myoblasts. Myoblasts repair muscle cells by fusing with the injured cell and they share their nuclei with the injured cell¹s nuclei. When these two myoblasts fuse completely, new cells are formed.
In 1970 Law thought of a procedure that would fuse healthy myoblasts with the dystrophic one, hoping that the resulting hybrid would have some function. However, Law had to perfect this procedure. One of the main problems was that when the healthy myoblast cells were fused, the immune system would treat them as alien and attack them. According to Law, another thing they had to do was ³... to design and perfect a culture medium to mass-produce myoblasts and weed out other cells.²(Grady 90) Law explains yet another problem encountered,³If you cram too many cells in the same spot, they might not survive.²(Grady 90)
While Law was working on his myoblast experiments, another door was opened by the discovery of the exact gene that caused the dystrophy. Many scientists thought that this gene therapy, rather than Law¹s cell therapy, was the future. But Law dismissed gene therapy saying, ³To me, in reality, that science will not work in our lifetime. First you must make a normal copy of the defective gene, which is enormous, and somehow insert it into a small virus to carry it into the host. Then you must hope that the virus will attack the right cell in the body, get through the cell membrane, break into the nucleus, and splice itself into place inside the cell¹s DNA. And then you expect that cell to function as normal? Are you kidding me?²(Grady 91-92) Law also made it clear that in gene therapy you have to replace the exact right nucleus in the exact right gene. In cell therapy, it doesn¹t matter which is the exactly right one that needs replacement because all of the cells are being replaced.
Just two years after he wrote off the gene therapy, in 1988,when the problems were weeded out, Law injected healthy myoblasts into 19 dystrophic mice. The results of these tests were encouraging; 11 mice fared extremely well, 3 showed moderate improvement and 5 rejected the myoblasts. Another encouraging fact was that the life span was increased from nine months to nineteen months in the mice that fared extremely well. With the success in the mice, Law decided to launch phase I of his human experiments . Each of three boys received four injections of myoblasts from either their brother¹s body or their father¹s body. In two of the boys, these injections, which were given in the foot, were matched in the other foot by placebo saline solutions so nobody except Law¹s assistant would know which foot the real injections were placed. At the end of the experiment, all three boys said that they felt that one foot was stronger than the other. The foot that felt stronger was the same foot that was injected with
the myoblasts in all three cases, and all three feelings of greater strength were backed up by muscle strength tests administered by Law.
Although the results of Phase I seemed ideal, Law received some criticism from his peers. They said that he rushed too quickly into the human experiments without gaining complete assurance that it would work to perfection. Some scientists were concerned that the myoblast injection would have side-effects. The criticism was not publicized to a wide extent, and it went virtually unnoticed after Law made a statement in which he said, ³We have to move the research forward as quickly as possible. These are dying children. We have no time to lose.²(Grady 88)
In May 1991, after Phase I was considered to be a success, Law lunched Phase II. As of July 24, 1992 Law had treated the major leg muscle of 32 boys, ages 6 to 14. For this process, Law removes an eraser-sized piece of muscle from either the patients father or brother. Then, he grows the muscle in the lab until he has 5 million myoblasts. At the time of treatment, the patients go under general anesthesia for 10 minutes, and receive 48 injections of myoblasts in 22 muscle groups. All patients take cyclosporin, an immune system suppressive for six months to prevent the boys from rejecting the myoblasts. The muscle strength of each patient is recorded 3 months before treatment, at the time of treatment, and three months after treatment. This test was also successful. Muscle strength was reported to improve in 43% of the muscles by an average of 41% when compared to muscle strength before treatment. 38% of the muscles stopped deteriorating after treatment and 19% completely failed to respond.
However, as in Phase I, Law¹s success was accompanied with criticism. The major problem his peers had was that there were no controls. Says Robert H. Brown Jr. of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston during one meeting session, ³I am astonished that you haven¹t controlled for cyclosporin.(Thompson 473) Law counters, ³We have a perfect control, strength before and after transfer on the same muscle.²(Thompson 473) Law also says that the upper body of the patient acts as a control. Law says that another reason he does not use controls is because the saline solution is shown to speed up deterioration, and that would not be ethically correct. His opposition, however says that since he only had two patients with the placebo solution, so those results could not be verified. Another thing that was criticized was the use of muscle strength to measure the effectiveness. The three major components of the criticism is that the children may not be using full exertion, that when you get older your strength gets
greater, and third, how do you know dystrophin produced this strength; what about the cyclosporin?
The work done by Peter Law has been exemplary. He has found a method for prolonging the life of young DMD patients. Although the way Law went about his trials were controversial, moving as fast as possible is imperative because thousands of children are having their ability to walk, and eventually their lives taken away by this disease. If Law had waited, it may have been too late. Although there is a large controversy concerning Peter Law, the Muscular Dystrophy Association should support him and encourage him to perfect a cure for this disease.
Another sex linked diseases that is similar to DMD in makeup, not in symptoms is hemophilia. In hemophiliacs, a protein that clots blood is missing or abnormal due to a gene mutation that was formed in the duplication of sex genes. The protein missing in hemophilia victims is antihemophilic globulin (AHG). Like in all sex linked diseases, only males can show symptoms, and females are the only carriers. The father of a hemophiliac may or may not be infected, but the mother must be a carrier. A hemophiliac has received his mother¹s bad X chromosome and his father¹s Y. The same couple can also have a normal son who received his mother¹s good X and his father¹s Y. If the couple has daughters she can receive her father¹s X and her mother¹s bad X, or mother¹s good X. So, the chance of a hemophiliac boy being born when the mother is a carrier is one in four. Therefore the incidence of hemophilia is familial, as in the Russian royal family. In hemophiliacs ,the tendency to bleed becomes noticeable at a young
age and leads to severe anemia or even death. Hemophiliacs often have large bruises and soft tissue of the skin from incidents as small as lightly bumping into something. This bruising is much like the bruising of the elderly. Not only will bruises form, but bleeding will often occur for no reason in the mouth, nose and gastrointestinal tract. Once the victim grows out of childhood, hemorrhages in knees , ankles, elbows and other joints occur frequently. These hemorrhages result in swelling which impairs the victim¹s function. Hemophilia patients are generally advised to refrain from physical activity . When hemorrhages occur, local application such as thrombin are applied that serve as a blood clotting mechanism, or blood is transfused.
A third type of a sex linked disease caused by a defective chromosome is color blindness. Red/green color blindness, the most common type that affects six percent of the population, is caused by defective green cones in the retina. People with red-green color deficiency see blue and orange very clear and bright. Other colors, although different from the colors that normal people see, are always the same to them and suit most victims fine because they have nothing to compare the colors they see to(USA Today 16). Like hemophilia, Duchenne¹s Muscular Dystrophy and all sex linked diseases, only males suffer the symptoms, and the females are the carriers. Although color blindness is a disease that affects thousands of people, it is not a life-threatening disease. Most color blind people do not suffer, because they do not know that the color should be different. Few problems, like traffic lights, hinder color blind people, and as Cynthia Bradford, an opthamologist at the University of Oklahoma Health Science
s Center says, ³With many people, you might not even know they¹re color blind­unless they tell you²(USA Today 16)
Unlike sex linked diseases, sex influenced diseases do not affect one sex solely. Baldness, the lack or loss of hair, is caused by an imbalance of testosterone. Since it is caused by testosterone, much more concentrated in males, sex influenced diseases are much more common in males.This imbalance causes the destruction of hair follicles which causes the baldness to be permanent. The largest type of baldness is male-pattern baldness that affects forty percent of some male populations(Norton 2:826). Male-pattern baldness is hereditary, and varies in degree from generation to generation. Ironically, people with male pattern baldness have a higher percentage of body hair than most, and those Aborigines with male pattern baldness generally have bald calves as well. Although this disease is not life-threatening, baldness is a social problem. Almost every other man is a victim, and those who do suffer the disease are prejudiced. Solutions, not cures to baldness to exist. The first obvious option is the wi
g. Secondly, hair transplants are becoming more and more frequent, and topical solutions such as minoxidil have helped to prevent further balding in many cases, and reinitiate hair growth in a much smaller percent of users. The important thing to remember about sex influenced diseases is that they are hereditary, but only to the extent of the amount of testosterone produced. The genes tell the offspring the amount and concentration of testosterone, not whether or not to lose hair. If the amounts of testosterone relayed are not normal, baldness may occur.
A second sex influenced disease is gout. Gout is the ³hereditary metabolic disorder that is characterized by recurrent acute attacks of severe inflammation in one or more of the extremities²(Norton 5:392). This inflammation is caused by an excess deposition of uric acid in and about the joints. Like baldness, this condition strikes men predominantly, but can also be found in women. The exact cause of gout is not yet known, however, it is logical to believe that it is caused by the same hormonal imbalances as baldness, and that is why it is classified as a sex influenced disease. Gout is inborn, however the symptoms do not occur until middle age. Before the attacks, small amount of uric acid build up in the joints. All joints, especially the big toe, are susceptible. Symptoms such as heat, redness of the skin, and extreme tenderness and pain accompany the affected joints. Numerous gout attacks can cause knobby bumps on the affected joints. Acute cases of gout may come and go in a matter of a week fo
r no apparent reason. Some circumstances , however, inhibit the symptoms of gout. These circumstances include: emotional upset, diuresis, surgery, trauma, and the administration of certain drugs. Cochicine is the classic treatment for gout, but new medicines have surfaced recently.
Sex linked and sex influenced diseases are a problem that hurts our society. Although many of the diseases are just an inconvenience, others are fatal. There is no fathomable way of preventing any of these diseases, unless genes can be altered. The only medicine to treat theses diseases acts as a suppressant, not as an end to the diseases¹s life. Hopefully, cures can be found to save the lives of young, innocent people who are affected with hemophilia, Duchenne¹s Muscular Dystrophy and other fatal diseases.
Works Cited
³Color Blindness Misconceptions.² USA Today 120 (1992):16
³Foot Feat: transplant treats dystrophy.² Science News 16 June 1990:380
Grady, Denise. ³One foot forward.² Discover September 1990:86-93
Massie, Robert., and Massie, Suzanne. Journey. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961.
Norton, Peter B. ³baldness.² The New Encyclopedia Britannica. 1994 ed.
Norton, Peter B. ³gout.² The New Encyclopedia Britannica. 1994 ed.
Norton, Peter B. ³hemophilia.² The New Encyclopedia Britannica. 1994 ed.
Thompson, Larry. ³Cell transplant results under fire.² Science 257 (24 July 1992) 472-474



Diseases: Sex Linked and Sex Influenced

by

Richard Nixon















Honors Biology
Mrs. Linda
December 19, 1994

The topic that I am explaining about is Sickle Cell Anemia, a hereditary disease which affects red blood cells. Throughout this research paper, I will discuss what exactly it is, how it is caused, any known treatments or cures, and many other facts that are important in this disease.
Sickle Cell Anemia is a health problem throughout the world. More than 250,000 babies are born worldwide with this inherited blood cell disorder (http://www.medaccess.com/h_child/sickle/sca_01.htm). The disorder causes red blood cells to extend into a sickle shape which clogs the arteries.Persistant pain and life-threatening infections result from the illness. About one in 400 black newborns in the U.S. have sickle cell anemia. And one in 12 black Americans carry the sickle cell trait (http://www.medaccess.com/h_child/sickle/sca_01.htm). This leaves a good chance that the parent with the trait can pass the defect onto offspring although their own health is not harmed.
The cause of sickle cell anemia is rather simple but it leaves a life threatening affect. Anyone who carries the inherited trait for sickle cell anemia, but doesn't have the disorder, is actually protected from a severe form of malaria. This helped the children in countries where malaria was a problem, to be able to survive against that disease. What happened to those children? They grew up, had their own children and ended up passing the gene for sickle cell anemia onto their offspring.
This disease is a hereditary blood disorder that affects the red blood cell. Red blood cells contain a protein called hemoglobin which transports oxygen from your lungs to every part of your body. Hemoglobin's oxygen carrying ability is essential for living but if there is a structural defect on the pigmented molecule, it can be fatal. When a normal red blood cell distributes its
2
oxygen, it has a disc shape. But when an affected red blood cell containing sickle cell hemoglobin releases its oxygen, the image of the cell changes from a disc shape to a sickled shape. In hemoglobin, there are four chains of amino acids. Two are know as alpha chains, and two are called beta chains. In a normal hemoglobin, the amino acid in the sixth position on the beta chain is known as glutamic acid (refer to diagram 1.1 on page 6). During sickle cell anemia, the glutamic acid is pushed out of its place and replaced with another amino acid called vialine(refer to diagram 1.2 on page 6). This simple substitution has devastating consequences.
Hemoglobin molecules that contain the beta chain defect stick to one another instead of staying separate after releasing oxygen. This forms long, rigid rods inside the red blood cells. The rods cause the normally smooth and disc shaped blood cells to take on a sickle shape. When this happens, the blood cells lose essential ability to deform and squeeze through small blood vessels and arteries. The sickle cells becomes stiff and sticky which clog vessels, depriving tissue from receiving a sufficient blood supply. This change makes the hemoglobin less soluble in water. When a person is deprived of oxygen, the hemoglobin molecules join together and form fibers. The fibers cause the blood cells to change shape.
Sickle hemoglobin and normal hemoglobin carry the same amount of oxygen but there are two major differences between the two kinds of cells. The normal hemoglobin is found in only disc shaped red blood cells that are soft, which permits them to easily flow through small blood vessels. Diseased red blood cells are sickle shaped and are very hard which tend to get stuck in small blood vessels and stop the flow of blood.
The other difference between the two cells is their longevity. Sickle cells do not live as long as
3
normal cells. Normal healthy cells can survive for about 120 days , while the more fragile sickle cells can survive for about 60 days or even less. The body cannot make new red blood cells as fast as it loses sickled blood cells. A sickle cell patient has fewer red blood cells and less hemoglobin than normal red blood cells. This results in less oxygen being convenient for use by the cells of the body.
Anyone whose parent has the gene for sickle cell anemia have the chance of at least having sickle cell trait. In order for a child to have the disease, both parents must have the sickle cell gene(refer to diagrams 2.1 and 2.2 on page 6). The disease affects mostly African Americans in Africa, South America, Latin America, the West Indies, Greece, Spain, Italy, and Turkey.
When the blockage of sickled red blood occurs, it can take place in any organ or joint of the body wherever a blood clot develops. The frequency and amount of pain varies widely depending on the person. In some people, painful episodes occur once a year but for other patients, they can have as many as 15 to 20 episodes annually. These excruciating, disruptive events can be so brutal that the patient must go into the hospital for five to seven days to obtain intravenous fluids and narcotic pain killers. The pain can only be controlled, it cannot be stopped or you cant even identify when it is likely to happen again.
Sickle cell clots are life threatening, depending on where it occurs. One of the most severe places for a clot to occur in is the brain. It could lead to a stroke which could turn into paralysis or even worse, death. Sometimes a blood transfusion is required every three to four weeks to avoid recurrence of clots in the brain.
When blood capillaries are clogged, it can lead to many types of problems, depending upon
4
where the blockage occurs. The outcome of the blockages may lead to problems such as kidney infections, death and decay of tissues, intense pain in chest, arms and legs, disease of the retina of the eye, slow healing sores or ulcers, and even gallstones. When the hemoglobin is low, it is manifested by fatigue and weakness.
Currently, there is no cure for Sickle Cell Anemia. But the doctors do offer a treatment that helps control this disease. Pain medication, antibiotics, rest and high fluid intakes are all treatments for aspects of sickle cell anemia. There are also experimental therapies that are available to some patients. The drug hydroxyurea is a treatment that reduced 50% the frequency of painful episodes and hospital visits. Preventive administration of penicillin to affected children by the age of four months greatly decreases mortality from infections.
While researching this topic and studying about the disease, I have learned many new details about it. I realized that even the slightest change in the sequence of amino acids can lead to very harmful effects. In this disease, only one amino acid was substituted and still the illness is very harsh. I also learned how exactly the cells deform and why they go into a sickle shape. It was very interesting to learn that the disease mostly effects African Americans. I also learned that when the sickles get clogged in an artery, it results in a very painful attack on the person and may cause them to have an episode. When episodes occur, the patient may have to go into a hospital for pain killers. The disease also can lead to ulcers, strokes, paralysis, decay of tissues, and many other problems throughout the persons entire life. Sickle Cell Anemia is a very serious disease that effects a person and there way of life. It doesn't have a known cure yet but many treatments and therapy are available. If a perso
n has this disease, it is life-threatening and painful attacks can
5
occur at any time, anywhere. It is important to know the causes and reasons for the disease so that you can relate to what a person with Sickle Cell Anemia is going through.

Diabetes

Diabetes is a disease in which your body is unable to properly use and store glucose. Glucose backs up in the bloodstream causing your blood glucose or "sugar" to rise too high.
There are two major types of diabetes, Type I and Type II. In Type I diabetes, your body completely stops producing any insulin, a hormone that lets your body use glucose found in foods for energy. People with Type I diabetes must take daily insulin injections to survive. This form of diabetes usually develops in children or young adults, but can happen at any age. In Type II diabetes, the body produces insulin, but not enough to properly convert food into energy. This form of diabetes usually occurs in people who are over 40, overweight, and have a family history of diabetes.
People with diabetes often experience symptoms. Some of the symptoms are:

1)being very thirsty
2)having to go to the bathroom very frequently
3)weight loss
4)increased hunger
5)blurry vision
6)skin infections
7)wounds that don't heal
8)and/or extreme unexplained fatigue

In some cases, there are no symptoms, this happens at times with Type II diabetes. In this case, people can live for months, even years without knowing they have the disease. This form of diabetes comes on so gradually that symptoms might not even be recognized.
Diabetes can occur in anyone. However, people who have close relatives with the disease are somewhat more likely to develop it. The risk of getting diabetes also increases as people grow older. People who are over 40 and overweight are more likely to get diabetes. So are people of African-American, Hispanic or Asian heritage. Also, people who develop diabetes while pregnant are more likely to develop full-blown diabetes later in life.
There are certain things that everyone who has diabetes, whether Type I or Type II, needs to do to be healthy. You need to have an eating plan. You need to pay attention to how much you exercise, because exercise can help your body use insulin better to convert glucose into energy for cells. Everyone with Type I diabetes, and some people with Type II diabetes, also need to take insulin injections. Some people with Type II diabetes take pills called "oral agents" which help their bodies produce more insulin and/or use the insulin it is producing better. Some people with Type II diabetes can control their disease with weight loss, diet and exercise alone and don't need any medication.
Everyone who has diabetes should be seen at least once every six months by a diabetes specialist. You should also be seen periodically by other members of a diabetes treatment team, including a diabetes nurse educator, and a diabetes dietitian educator who helps you develop a meal plan that works best for you. Ideally , you should also see an exercise physiologist for help in developing an exercise plan, and if you think you need it, a social worker, psychologist or other mental health professional for help with the stresses and challenges of living with a chronic disease. Everyone who has diabetes should have regular eye exams at least once a year by an ophthalmologist to make sure that any eye problems associated with diabetes are caught early, and treated before they become serious.
Also, people with diabetes need to learn how to monitor their blood sugars day-to-day at home using home blood sugar monitoring. This daily testing, which your diabetes educator can explain to you, will help you see how well your meal plan, exercise, and medication are working to keep your blood sugars in a normal range.
Your health care team will encourage you to follow your meal plan and exercise program, use your medications and monitor your blood sugars regularly to keep your blood sugars in as normal a range as possible as much of the time as possible. Why is this so important? Because poorly managed diabetes can lead to a host of long-term complications among them are heart attacks, strokes, blindness, kidney failure, blood vessel disease that requires an amputation, nerve damage, and impotence in men.
But happily, a recent nationwide study completed over a 10-year period showed that if people keep their blood sugars as close to normal as possible, they can reduce their risk of developing some of these complications by 50 percent or more.
A study being conducted at Joslin Diabetes Center and several other sites nationwide is screening the immediate relatives of someone with Type I diabetes because we can now identify those who will develop this form of the disease as much as five or more years in advance.
Type II diabetes is the most common type of diabetes, yet we still do not understand it very well. But recent research does suggest that there are some things you can do to prevent this form of diabetes, particularly if it runs in your family, or if you have had gestational diabetes, or if you are a member of an ethnic group that is more prone to this disease.
In simplest terms, to prevent or slow the development of Type II diabetes you should try to maintain your weight in as normal a range as possible. If you are overweight, lose weight. And, try to develop a regular exercise program, as the exercise will help your body use insulin more effectively.

November 16, 1995
Hundreds of thousands of times a year a single-celled zygote, smaller than a grain of sand, transforms into an amazingly complex network of cells, a newborn infant. Through cellular differentiation and growth, this process is completed with precision time and time again, but very rarely a mistake in the "blueprint" of growth and development does occur. Following is a description of how the pathways of this intricate web are followed and the mistakes which happen when they are not.
The impressive process of differentiation changes a single-cell into a complicated system of cells as distinct as bold and bone. Although embryonic development takes approximately nine months, the greatest amount of cellular differentiation takes place during the first eight weeks of pregnancy. This period is called embryogenesis.
During the first week after fertilization, which takes place in the Fallopian tube, the embryo starts to cleave once every twenty-four hours (Fig. 1). Until the eight or sixteen cell stage, the individual cells, or blastomeres, are thought to have the potential to form any part of the fetus (Leese, Conaghan, Martin, and Hardy, April 1993). As the blastomeres continue to divide, a solid ball of cells develops to form the morula (Fig. 1). The accumulation of fluid inside the morula, transforms it into a hollow sphere called a blastula, which implants itself into the inner lining of the uterus, the endometrium (Fig. 1). The inner mass of the blastula will produce the embryo, while the outer layer of cells will form the trophoblast, which eventually will provide nourishment to the ovum (Pritchard, MacDonald, and Gant, 1985).

Figure 1:Implantation process and development during
embryogenesis (Pritchard, MacDonald and
Gant, 1985)












During the second week of development, gastrulation, the process by which the germ layers are formed, begins to occur. The inner cell mass, now called the embryonic disc, differentiates into a thick plate of ectoderm and an underlying layer of endoderm. This cellular multiplication in the embryonic disc marks the beginning of a thickening in the midline that is called the primitive streak. Cells spread out laterally from the primitive streak between the ectoderm and the endoderm to form the mesoderm. These three germ layers, which are the origins of many structures as shown in Table 1, begin to develop.


Table 1: Normal Germ Layer Origin of Structures in Some or all Vertebrates (Harrison, 1969)

Normal Germ Layer Origin of Structures in Some or All Vertebrates
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm
Skin epidermis Hair Feathers Scales Beaks Nails Claws Sebaceous, sweat, and mammary glands Oral and anal lining tooth enamel Nasal epithelium Lens of the eye Inner earBrainSpinal cordRetina and other eye partsNerve cells and gangliaPigment cellsCanal of external earmedulla of the adrenal glandPituitary gland Dermis of the skinConnective tissueMusclesSkeletal componentsOuter coverings of the eyeCardiovascular system Heart Blood cells Blood vesselsKidneys and excretory ductsGonads and reproductive ductsCortex of the adrenal glandSpleenLining of coelomic cavitiesMesenteries LiverGall bladderPancreasThyroid glandThymus glandParathyroid glandsPalatine tonsilsMiddle earEustachian tubeUrinary bladderPrimordial germ cellsLining of all organs of digestive tract and respiratory tract


During the third week of development, the cephalic (head) and caudal (tail) end of the embryo become distinguishable. Most of the substance of the early embryo will enter into the formation of the head. Blood vessels begin to develop in the mesoderm and a primitive heart may also be observed (Harrison, 1969). Cells rapidly spread away from the primitive streak to eventually form the neural groove, which will form a tube to the gut. When the neural folds develop on either side of the groove, the underlying mesoderm forms segmentally arranged blocks of mesoderm called somite. These give rise to the dermis of the skin, most skeletal muscles, and precursors of vertebral bodies. the otocyst, which later becomes the inner ear, and the lens placodes, which later form the lenses of the adult eyes, are derived from the ectoderm.
The strand of cardiovascular functioning is apparent during the fourth week. The heart shows early signs of different chambers and begins to pump blood through the embryo which simultaneously has well developed its kidneys, thyroid gland, stomach, pancreas, lungs, esophagus, gall bladder, larynx, nd trachea (Carlson, 1981).
Several new structures are observed, organs continue developing, and some previously formed structures reorganize during the fifth week of embryogenesis. The cranial and spinal nerves begin to form and the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum are visible. The spleen, parathyroid glands, thymus gland, retina, and gonads, all new structures, also begin to form. The gastrointestimer tract undergoes considerable development as the middle part of the primitive intestine becomes a loop larger than the abdominal cavity. Next, it must then project into the umbilical cord until there is room for the entire bowel. Finally, the heart develops walls or atrial and ventricular septa and atriventricle cushion. These cushions thicken the junction of the atrium and ventricle. the atrial and ventricular septa meanwhile divide their respective chambers into right and left halves (Harrison, 1969).
The sixth week is characterized by the completion of most organ formation. The embryo has a more identifiable human face with basic structure of the eyes and ears now developed. Hard and soft palates appear, the salivary glands begin to form, and there is an early differentiation of the cells that later develop into the teeth. Division of the heart is essentially completed and the valves begin to form. The primitive intestinal tract is divided into the anterior and posterior chambers that will later develop into the urinary bladder and the rectum, respectively. At the end of the week, the gonads are histologically recognizable as either testes or ovaries (Pritchard, MacDonald, and Gant, 1985).
The embryo looks similar to miniature human when it enters the seventh week of embryogenesis. During this last week, the pituitary gland takes a definitive structure, the eyelids become visible, the last group of muscles begin to form, and bone marrow appears for the first time. the main concerns of this period are the different developments taking place in the male and female. This is first shown as the Müllerian ducts degenerate in males, but continues to develop in females, where they will later differentiate to become the Fallopian tubes, the uterus and the inner part of the vagina. The Wolffian ducts degenerate in female embryos, but continue to develop into the ductus deferens in the male. Although the external genitalia continue to grow and develop, they are still unable to be visibly identified as male or female. By the end of this week the placenta begins to take on definite characteristics, and for the first time blood from the maternal circulation enters the placental circulation (Carlson,1981).
After this period of embryogenesis the embryo is given the name fetus. The remainder of pregnancy is primarily concerned with growth and cellular differentiation, but during this period of growth, mistakes which can cause birth defects are still highly effective, as they were in the first seven weeks of development. What are some of these defects which begin during the first trimester of pregnancy and how are they caused?
Obviously the process of a developing embryo and fetus is very complicated and although most of the babies born each year are free from any abnormalities, up to five percent of all newborn infants have congenital anomalies, birth defects (Cunningham, MacDonald, and Gant, July/August 1989). Seventy percent of birth defects are unknown spontaneous errors of development. Of the thirty percent which are known, twenty-five percent are associated with genetic factors that include major chromosomal defect and point mutations, three percent with venereal diseases such as syphilis and rubella, and two percent with teratogens, medications and drugs (Cunningham, MacDonald, and Gant, Feb./March 1991).
Spontaneous errors in development, whose causes are unknown, can happen in the central nervous system, face, gut, genitourinary system, and heart as shown in Table 2. The time during pregnancy which these may occur is also is also shown in Table 2 and ranges from twenty-three days to twelve weeks, all which fall into the first trimester. How these anomalies are triggered in birth defects is unknown. Neural Tube Defects, which causes are also unknown, are some of the most common defects and result in infant mortality or serious disability. These abnormalities include anencephaly, a malformation characterized by cerebral hemispheres that are absent, and spina bifida, an exposed , ruptured spine (Medicine, March 1993).

TABLE 2. Relative timing and development of pathology of certain birth defects (Adapted from Cunningham, MacDonald and Gant, February/ March 1991).


Birth defects by area Time limit
Central Nervous System Closure of anterior neural tube Closure in a portion of posterior neural tube 26 days28 days
Face Closure of lip Fusion of maxillary palatal shelves resolution of branchial cleft 36 days10 weeks8 weeks
Gut Lateral septation of foregut into trachea Lateral septation of cloaca into rectum and urogenital sinus Recanalization of duodenum Rotation of intestinal loop Return of midgut from yolk sac to abdomen Obliteration of vitelline duct Closure of pleuroperitoneal canal 30 days6 weeks7 to 8 weeks10 weeks10 weeks10 weeks6 weeks
Genitourinary system Migration of infraumbilical mesenchyme Fusion of lower portion of Müllerian ducts Fusion of urethral folds (labia minora) 30 days10 weeks12 weeks
Heart Directional development of bulbous cordis septum ventricular septum closure 34 days6 weeks
Limb Genesis of radial bone Separation of digital rays 38 days6 weeks
Complex Prechordal mesoderm development Development of posterior axis 23 days23 days


On the other hand the effects and consequences of teratogens are known. "A teratogen is any agent such as a medication or other systemically absorbed chemical or factor like hyperthermia, that produces permanent abnormal embryonic physical development or physiology (Cunningham, MacDonald, and Gant, Feb./March 1991). The embryonic period is most critical with respect to malformations because it encompasses organogenesis. Drugs and chemicals such as alcohol and organic mercury can cause mental retardation, while infection such as varicella, the chicken pox, can cause limb defects, neurologic anomalies, and skin scars (Baker, April 1990). A more complete list of drugs, chemicals and infections, and their effects are listed in Table 3. These type of birth defects are unique because abnormalities due to drugs and chemical exposure are potentially preventable (Cunningham, MacDonald, and Gant, Feb./March 1991).

TABLE 3. Effects and comments of documented teratogens (ACOG Technical Bulletin, Feb.1985)


Agent Effects Comments
Drugs and Chemicals
Alcohol Growth retardation, mental retardation, various major and minor malformations Risk due to ingestion of one or two drinks per day (1-2 oz) may cause a small reduction in average birth weight.
Androgens Hermaphroditism in female offspring, advanced genital development in males Effects are dose dependent and related to stage of embryonic development. Depending on time of exposure, clitoral enlargement or labioscrotal fusion can be produced.
Anticoagulants Hypoplastic nose, bony abnormalities, broad short hands with shortened phalanges, intrauterine growth retardation, deformations of neck, central nervous system defects Risk for a seriously affected child is considered to be 25% when anticoagulants that inhibit vitamin K are used in the first trimester.
Antithyroid drugs fetal goiter Goiter in fetus may lead to malpresentation with hyperextended head.
Diethylstilbestrol (DES) Vaginal adenosis, abnormalities of cervix and uterus in females, possible infertility in males and females Vaginal adenosis is detected in over 50% of women whose mothers took these drugs before the ninth week of pregnancy.
Lead Increased abortion rate and stillbirths Central nervous system development of the fetus may be adversely affected.
Lithium Congenital heart disease Heart malfunctions due to first trimester exposure occur in approximately 2%.
Organic mercury Mental retardation, spasticity, seizures, blindness Exposed individuals include consumers of contaminated grain and fish. Contamination is usually with methyl mercury
Isotrtinoin (Accutane) Increased abortion rate, nervous system defects, cardiovascular effects, craniofacial dysmorphism, cleft palate First trimester exposure may result in approximately 25% anomaly rate
Thalidomide Bilateral limb deficiencies-days 27-40, anotia and microtia-days 21-27, other abnormalities Of children whose mothers used thalidomide, 20% show the effect.
Trimethadione Cleft lip or cleft palate, cardiac defects, growth retardation, mental retardation Risks for defects or spontaneous abortion is 60-80% with first trimester exposure.
Valproic acid Neural tube defects Exposure must be prior to normal closure of neural tube during first trimester to get open defect.
Infections
Rubella Cataracts, deafness, heart lesions, plus expanded syndrome including effects on all organs Malformation rate is 50% if mother is infected during first trimester.
Varicella possible effects on all organs including skin scarring and muscle atrophy Zoster immune globulin is available for newborns exposed during last few days of gestation.


Chromosomal abnormalities, the leading cause of birth defects, develop during meiotic division in the gonad, the organ which produces sex cells. A chromosome may drop out of the dividing cell and thus be lost. Fertilization of this type of gamete results in a zygote with a missing chromosome. If the gamete fails to split equally at meiotic division and the cell with the extra chromosome is fertilized, the zygote becomes trisomic (Pritchard, MacDonald, and Gant, 1985). Down Syndrome, the most common chromosomal defect, results from an extra chromosome (trisomy 21). Less common is chromosomal translocation defect. Translocation is the transfer of a segment of one chromosome to a different site on the same chromosome or to a different chromosome (Pritchard, MacDonald, and Gant, 1985). Many other syndromes, their chromosomal complement, and signs of these syndromes which are recognizable at birth are shown in Table 4.


TABLE 4. Findings in established chromosomal abnormalities in man (Pritchard, MacDonald, and Gant, 1985)


Syndrome Chromosomal Complement Signs Recognizable at Birth
Turners 45 / X Lymphangiectatic edema of hands and feet
Klinefelters 47 / XXY None
Triple X 47 / XXX None
YY 47 None
Downs trisomy 21 47 Mongoloid facies, Simian line
Translocation 46 Same
Trisomy 13 - 15 47 Cleft palate, Harelip, Eye defects, Polydactyly
Trisomy 16 - 18 47 Finger flexion, Lowest ears, Digital arches
Cat cry 46 (Deletion B 5) Cat cry, Moon face


During the first trimester of prgnancy, an embryo must correctly
make its way through a complex matrix of differentiation and development to become a normal infant. When something does go wrong, the embryo or fetus will unfortunately have some type of defect. The amazing accuracy with which a single cell can become something as complex as a newborn infant is a truley incredible feat!

CYSTIC FIBROSIS

ONE OUT OF EVERY 2,500 BIRTHS IN THE UNITED STATES WILL BE DIAGNOSED WITH CYSTIC FIBROSIS. THIS FACT MAKES CYSTIC FIBROSIS ONE OF THE MOST COMMON GENETIC DISEASES IN THE NATION. ABOUT 30,000 AMERICANS HAVE THE DISEASE, BUT
EVEN THOUGH CYSTIC FIBROSIS IS THE NATIONS MOST COMMON GENETIC DISEASE THE MAJORITY OF AMERICANS KNOW LITTLE ABOUT IT. CYSTIC FIBROSIS IS RELATIVELY COMMON IN CALCASTION PEOPLE BUT RARE IN AFRICAN-AMERICAN. THE DISEASE IS VERY UNCOMMON IN MONGOLIANS. FIVE PERCENT OF THE POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES ARE CARRIERS OF THE GENETIC DISEASE.
CYSTIC FIBROSIS, SOMETIMES CLASSIFIED AS MUCOVISCIDOSIS, IS A DISORDER IN WHICH THE EXCRORINE GLANDS SECRETE ABNORMALLY THICK MUCUS. THIS LEADS TO THE OBSTRUCTION OF THE PANCREAS AND CHRONIC INFECTIONS OF THE LUNGS, WHICH GENERALLY CAUSES DEATH IN CHILDHOOD OR EARLY ADULTHOOD. SOME MILDLY AFFECTED PATIENTS MAY SURVIVE LONGER. PATIENTS WITH PANCREATIC INSUFFICIENCY TAKE PANCREATIC ENZYMES WITH MEALS. THOSE WITH RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS ARE TREATED WITH ANTIBIOTICS, MOSTLY WITH AEROSOLS THAT RELIEVE CONSTRICTION OF THE AIRWAYS. PHYSICAL THERAPY IS USED TO HELP PATIENTS COUGH UP THE OBSTRUCTING MUCUS. INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION, WHICH OCCURS MOSTLY IN INFANCY, MAY REQUIRE SURGERY.
IN 1989, RESEARCHERS FOND THE ABNORMAL GENE THAT CAUSES CYSTIC FIBROSIS. THIS GENE IS LOCATED ON CHROMOSOME 7 . A PERSON WHO HAS TWO CYSTIC FIBROSIS GENES HAS THE DISEASE . A PERSON THAT CARRIES ONE OF THE GENES DOES NOT HAVE THE GENETIC DISEASE, BUT IS A CARRIER.
THE SYMPTOMS OF CYSTIC FIBROSIS SOMETIMES OCCUR IMMEDIATELY AFTER BIRTH. MUCUS SECRETIONS MAY APPEAR IN THE BABY'S INTESTINES, WHICH CAN CAUSE OBSTRUCTION IN THE INTESTINES. IN ALL CASES, THE CHILD WILL GAIN LITTLE WEIGHT RIGHT FROM BIRTH, BECAUSE THE PANCREAS IS NOT PRODUCING ENZYMES. LITTLE TO NO NUTRIENTS ARE ABSORBED IN THE CHILD'S SYSTEM. A CHILD WITH CYSTIC FIBROSIS MAY HAVE REOCCURRING RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS, ALONG WITH COUGH AND FEVER. THIS MAY BE MORE SEVERE AND PERSISTENT THAT NORMAL THIS IS A RESULT OF THE THICK, STICKY MUCUS THAT WILL HOLD AND TRAP GERMS IN THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. IT SHOULD BE TAKEN IN TO CONSIDERATION THAT CHILDREN WITH CYSTIC FIBROSIS HAVE LARGE APPETITES AND EAT A GREAT DEAL. IN SPITE OF THEIR MALNUTRITION, THEY ART NOT IN PAIN AND DO NOT GENERALLY FEEL IT.
EXTRACTS OF ANIMAL PANCREAS, IN POWDER OR GRANULE FORM, ARE PRESCRIBED TO REPLACE THE MISSING ENZYMES FROM THE PANCREAS, AND THE AMOUNT OF FAT IS DECREASED IN THE CHILD'S DIET. WITH THIS TREATMENT THE CHILD BEGINS TO GAIN WEIGHT. TO KEEP THE LUNGS FREE OF AS MUCH MUCUS AS POSSIBLE , THE PATIENTS MAY NEED TO HAVE DAILY RESPIRATORY PHYSICAL THERAPY. ANY RESPIRATORY INFECTION THAT ARISE ARE TREATED WITH LARGE AMOUNTS OF ANTIBIOTICS.
CYSTIC FIBROSIS CAN NOT YET BE CURED. ALTHOUGH THE IDENTIFICATION OF CHROMOSOME 7 HAS PAVED THE WAY FOR GENE THERAPY. ANTIBIOTICS AND ENZYMES ARE NOT THE ONLY TREATMENTS FOR CYSTIC FIBROSIS. ONE RELATIVELY NEW TREATMENT IS A BIOTECH DRUG THAT THINS THE MUCUS, WHICH HELPS THE LUNGS FUNCTION BETTER AND REDUCES THE RISK OF INFECTIONS. GENE THERAPY IS STILL IN EXPERIMENTAL STAGES.

Color blindness is the inability to distinguish particular colors. It is generally an inherited
trait, but can result from a chemical imbalance or eye injury.
There are three primary colors. They are red, blue, and yellow. All other colors are the
results of different combinations of primary colors. Special visual cells, called cones, are respon-
sible for our ability to see color. People with normal vision have three different types of cones,
each responsible for a different primary color.
The absence of particular cones causes the absence of particular colors. This can be one
cause of color blindness. There are four types of color blindness. The rarest forms are mono-
chromatism and a-typical monochromatism. People with monochromatic vision, or total color
blindness, has no cones at all. As a result, they have no ability to see colors, and no hue discrimi-
nation whatsoever. Monochromatic vision is very similar to watching a black and white television
program.
Somebody with a-typical monochromatic vision has just one type of cone, and can see just
one color, and various shades of that color. This form is even rarer than the "typical" monochro-
matism.
Another, more common, form of color blindness is called dichromatism. People with di-
chromatic vision tend to confuse red, green, and gray, but can easily distinguish blue and yellow.
Some cannot even see the longest wavelengths of light -- the red end. Though it is rare, others
cannot see the short wavelengths, near the violet end. These people tend to confuse blue, yellow,
and gray, but not red and green.
Normal vision is called trichromatism. Most color blind people have a version of trichro-
matism called anomalous trichromatism. People with this condition can see the same colors as
people with normal vision, but not as well. For example, many people with this common form of
color blindness are "green-weak". This means, they see green, but to see the same color normal
people see when green and yellow is mixed, more green must be added. "Green-weak" and "red-
weak" are the most prevalent forms of anomalous trichromatism. The "blue-weak" form is rare.
Color blindness can be tested in a variety of ways. The Hardy-Rand-Rittler and Ishihara
tests indicate both the type of degree of color blindness. In these tests, a variety of shapes, letters,
and numbers lie in a jumbled mess of dots. The dots vary in both color and intensity, which cam-
ouflage the shapes. A person's ability to detect such shapes directly corresponds with their degree
of color blindness.
Other tests, such as the Holmgren yarn-matching test, and the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-
hue disk-matching test, measure one's ability to match colors. This can be useful when determines
one's degree of anomalous chromatism.
When color blindness is inherited (which is almost always the case), it is inherited from the
X chromosome. Nearly eight percent of the male population is color blind, but only one out of
two hundred females has this condition. The reason is, males have one X chromosome, and fe-
males have two. Color blindness is recessive on the X chromosome. So, if the X chromosome on
a male carries the color blindness gene, the male will be color blind. If one of the X chromosomes
of a female carries the gene for color blindness, generally the other will not, so there is a dominant
gene to take the place of the recessive one.
Currently, there is no cure for color blindness. There have been treatments that have
failed, but none that have worked. One failed treatment for anomalous trichromatism was color
tinted glasses. If you were green-weak, you would wear glasses with a tint of green. There were
obvious problem. The first was, everything appeared in shades of your weak color. If you looked
through green tinted glasses, your green vision was normal, but all others colors were off.


Bibliography

Adolf Fick, Color Vision, 1961 ed., s.v. "Color Blindness," 40-46.

David Marr, Vision (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1982), 252-264.

Mark Fineman, The Inquisitive Eye (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 3-12.

Ramesh C. Tripathi, Brenda J. Tripathi, World Book Encyclopedia, 1993 ed., s.v. "Color Blind-
ness," 827.

Gypsytech Vision Site (Internet). "http://www.gypsytech.com/clrbld.htm", as of December 2,
1996.

Of the diagnostic methods available to veterinarians, the clinical chemistry test has developed into a valuable aid for localizing pathologic conditions. This test is actually a collection of specially selected individual tests. With just a small amount of whole blood or serum, many body systems can be analyzed. Some of the more common screenings give information about the function of the kidneys, liver, and pancreas and about muscle and bone disease. There are many blood chemistry tests available to doctors. This paper covers the some of the more common tests.
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) is an end-product of protein metabolism. Like most of the other molecules in the body, amino acids are constantly renewed. In the course of this turnover, they may undergo deamination, the removal of the amino group. Deamination, which takes place principally in the liver, results in the formation of ammonia. In the liver, the ammonia is quickly converted to urea, which is relatively nontoxic, and is then released into the bloodstream. In the blood, it is readily removed through the kidneys and excreted in the urine. Any disease or condition that reduces glomerular filtration or increases protein catabolism results in elevated BUN levels.
Creatinine is another indicator of kidney function. Creatinine is a waste product derived from creatine. It is freely filtered by the glomerulus and blood levels are useful for estimating glomerular filtration rate. Muscle tissue contains phosphocreatinine which is converted to creatinine by a nonenzymatic process. This spontaneous degradation occurs at a rather consistent rate (Merck, 1991).
Causes of increases of both BUN and creatinine can be divided into three major categories: prerenal, renal, and postrenal. Prerenal causes include heart disease, hypoadrenocorticism and shock. Postrenal causes include urethral obstruction or lacerations of the ureter, bladder, or urethra. True renal disease from glomerular, tubular, or interstitial dysfunction raises BUN and creatinine levels when over 70% of the nephrons become nonfunctional (Sodikoff, 1995).
Glucose is a primary energy source for living organisms. The glucose level in blood is normally controlled to within narrow limits. Inadequate or excessive amounts of glucose or the inability to metabolize glucose can affect nearly every system in the body. Low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia) may be caused by pancreatic tumors (over-production of insulin), starvation, hypoadrenocorticism, hypopituitarism, and severe exertion. Elevated blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) can occur in diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, hyperpituitarism, anoxia (because of the instability of liver glycogen in oxygen deficiency), certain physiologic conditions (exposure to cold, digestion) and pancreatic necrosis (because the pancreas produces insulin which controls blood glucose levels).
Diabetes mellitus is caused by a deficiency in the secretion
or action of insulin. During periods of low blood glucose, glucagon stimulates the breakdown of liver glycogen and inhibits glucose breakdown by glycolysis in the liver and stimulates glucose synthesis by gluconeogenesis. This increases blood glucose. When glucose enters the bloodstream from the intestine after a carbohydrate-rich meal, the resulting increase in blood glucose causes increased insulin secretion and decreased glucagon secretion. Insulin stimulates glucose uptake by muscle tissue where glucose is converted to glucose-6-phosphate. Insulin also activates glycogen synthase so that much of the glucose-6-phosphate is converted to glycogen. It also stimulates the storage of excess fuels as fat (Lehninger, 1993).
With insufficient insulin, glucose is not used by the tissues and accumulates in the blood. The accumulated glucose then spills into the urine. Additional amounts of water are retained in urine because of the accumulation of glucose and polyuria (excessive urination) results. In order to prevent dehydration, more water than normal is consumed (polydipsia). In the absence of insulin, fatty acids released form adipose tissue are converted to ketone bodies (acetoacetic acid, B-hydroxybutyric acid, and acetone). Although ketone bodies can be used a energy sources, insulin deficiency impairs the ability of tissues to use ketone bodies, which accumulate in the blood. Because they are acids, ketones may exhaust the ability of the body to maintain normal pH. Ketones are excreted by the kidneys, drawing water with them into the urine. Ketones are also negatively charged and draw positively charged ions (sodium, potassium, calcium) with them into urine. Some other results of diabetes mellitus are cataracts (because of abnormal glucose metabolism in the lens which results in the accumulation of water), abnormal neutrophil function (resulting in greater susceptibility to infection), and an enlarged liver (due to fat accumulation) (Fraser, 1991).
Bilirubin is a bile pigment derived from the breakdown of heme by the reticuloendothelial system. The reticuloendothelial system filters out and destroys spent red blood cells yielding a free iron molecule and ultimately, bilirubin. Bilirubin binds to serum albumin, which restricts it from urinary excretion, and is transported to the liver. In the liver, bilirubin is changed into bilirubin diglucuronide, which is sufficiently water soluble to be secreted with other components of bile into the small intestine. Impaired liver function or blocked bile secretion causes bilirubin to leak into the blood, resulting in a yellowing of the skin and eyeballs (jaundice). Determination of bilirubin concentration in the blood is useful in diagnosing liver disease (Lehninger, 1993). Increased bilirubin can also be caused by hemolysis, bile duct obstruction, fever, and starvation (Bistner, 1995).
Two important serum lipids are cholesterol and triglycerides. Cholesterol is a precursor to bile salts and steroid hormones. The principle bile salts, taurocholic acid and glycocholic acid, are important in the digestion of food and the solubilization of ingested fats. The desmolase reaction converts cholesterol, in mitochondria, to pregnenolone which is transported to the endoplasmic reticulum and converted to progesterone. This is the precursor to all other steroid hormones (Garrett, 1995).
Triglycerides are the main form in which lipids are stored and are the predominant type of dietary lipid. They are stored in specialized cells called adipocytes (fat cells) under the skin, in the abdominal cavity, and in the mammary glands. As stored fuels, triglycerides have an advantage over polysaccharides because they are unhydrated and lack the extra water weight of polysaccharides. Also, because the carbon atoms are more reduced than those of sugars, oxidation of triglycerides yields more than twice as much energy, gram for gram, as that of carbohydrates (Lehninger, 1993).
Hyperlipidemia refers to an abnormally high concentration of triglyceride and/or cholesterol in the blood. Primary hyperlipidemia is an inherited disorder of lipid metabolism. Secondary hyperlipidemias are usually associated with pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, protein losing glomerulonephropathies, glucocorticosteroid administration, and a variety of liver abnormalities. Hypolipidemia is almost always a result of malnutrition (Barrie, 1995).
Alkaline phosphatase is present in high concentration in bone and liver. Bone remodeling (disease or repair) results in moderate elevations of serum alkaline phosphatase levels, and cholestasis (stagnation of bile flow) and bile duct obstruction result in dramatically increased serum alkaline phosphatase levels. The obstruction is usually intrahepatic, associated with swelling of hepatocytes and bile stasis. Elevated serum alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin levels suggest bile duct obstruction. Elevated serum alkaline phosphatase and normal bilirubin levels suggest hepatic congestion or swelling. Elevations also occur in rapidly growing young animals and in conditions causing bone formation (Bistner, 1995).
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme normally found in the mitochondria of liver, heart, and skeletal muscle cells. In the event of heart or liver damage, AST leaks into the blood stream and concentrations become elevated (Bistner, 1995). AST, along with alkaline phosphatase, are used to differentiate between liver and muscle damage in birds.
Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) is considered a liver-specific enzyme, although small amounts are present in the heart. ALT is generally located in the cytosol. Liver disease results in the releasing of the enzyme into the serum. Measurements of this enzyme are used in the diagnosis of certain types of liver diseases such as viral hepatitis and hepatic necrosis, and heart diseases. The ALT level remains elevated for more than a week after hepatic injury (Sodikoff, 1995).
Fibrinogen, albumin, and globulins constitute the major proteins of the blood plasma. Fibrinogen, which makes up about 0.3 percent of the total protein volume, is a soluble protein involved in the clotting process. The formation of blood clots is the result of a series of zymogen activations. Factors released by injured tissues or abnormal surfaces caused by injury initiate the clotting process. To create the clot, thrombin removes negatively charged peptides from fibrinogen, converting it to fibrin. The fibrin monomer has a different surface charge distribution than fibrinogen. These monomers readily aggregates into ordered fibrous arrays. Platelets and plasma globulins release a fibrin-stabilizing factor which creates cross-links in the fibrin net to stabilize the clot. The clot binds the wound until new tissue can be built (Garrett, 1995).
The alpha-, beta-, and gamma-globulins compose the globulins. Alpha-globulins transport lipids, hormones, and vitamins. Also included is a glycoprotein, ceruloplasmin, which carries copper and haptoglobulins, which bind hemoglobin. Iron transport is related to beta-globulins. The glycoprotein that binds the iron is transferrin (Lehninger, 1993). Gamma-globulins (immunoglobulins) are associated with antibody formation. There are five different classes of immunoglobulins. IgG is the major circulating antibody. It gives immune protection within the body and is small enough to cross the placenta, giving newborns temporary protection against infection. IgM also gives protection within the body but is too large to cross the placenta. IgA is normally found in mucous membranes, saliva, and milk. It provides external protection. IgD is thought to function during the development and maturation of the immune response. IgE makes of the smallest fraction of the immunoglobulins. It is responsible for allergic and hypersensitivity reactions.
Altered levels of alpha- and beta- globulins are rare, but immunoglobulin levels change in various conditions. Serum immunoglobulin levels can increase with viral or bacterial infection, parasitism, lymphosarcoma, and liver disease. Levels are decreased in immunodeficiency.
Albumin is a serum protein that affects osmotic pressure, binds many drugs, and transports fatty acids. Albumin is produced in the liver and is the most prevalent serum protein, making up 40 to 60 percent of the total protein. Serum albumin levels are decreased (hypoalbuminemia) by starvation, parasitism, chronic liver disease, and acute glomerulonephritis (Sodikoff, 1995). Albumin is a weak acid and hypoalbuminemia will tend to cause nonrespiratory alkalosis (de Morais, 1995). Serum albumin levels are often elevated in shock or severe dehydration.
Creatine Kinase (CK) is an enzyme that is most abundant in skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and nervous tissue. CK splits creatine phosphate in the presence of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to yield creatine and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). During periods of active muscular contraction and glycolysis, this reaction proceeds predominantly in the direction of ATP synthesis. During recovery from exertion, CK is used to resynthesize creatine phosphate from creatine at the expense of ATP. After a heart attack, CK is the first enzyme to appear in the blood (Lehninger, 1993). CK values become elevated from muscle damage (from trauma), infarction, muscular dystrophies, or inflammation. Elevated CK values can also be seen following intramuscular injections of irritating substances. Muscle diseases may be associated with direct damage to muscle fibers or neurogenic diseases that result in secondary damage to muscle fibers. Greatly increased CK values are usually associated with heart muscle disease because of the large number of mitochondria in heart muscle cells (Bistner, 1995).
When active muscle tissue cannot be supplied with sufficient oxygen, it becomes anaerobic and produces pyruvate from glucose by glycolysis. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) catalyzes the regeneration of NAD+ from NADH so glycolysis can continue. The lactate produced is released into the blood. Heart tissue is aerobic and uses lactate as a fuel, converting it to pyruvate via LDH and using the pyruvate to fuel the citric acid cycle to obtain energy (Lehninger, 1993). Because of the ubiquitous origins of LDH, the total serum level is not reliable for diagnosis; but in normal serum, there are five isoenzymes of LDH which give more specific information. These isoenzymes can help differentiate between increases in LDH due to liver, muscle, kidney, or heart damage or hemolysis (Bistner, 1995).
Calcium is involved in many processes of the body, including neuromuscular excitability, muscle contraction, enzyme activity, hormone release, and blood coagulation. Calcium is also an important ion in that it affects the permeability of the nerve cell membrane to sodium. Without sufficient calcium, muscle spasms can occur due to erratic, spontaneous nervous impulses.
The majority of the calcium in the body is found in bone as phosphate and carbonate. In blood, calcium is available in two forms. The nondiffusible form is bound to protein (mainly albumin) and makes up about 45 percent of the measurable calcium. This bound form is inactive. The ionized forms of calcium are biologically active. If the circulating level falls, the bones are used as a source of calcium.
Primary control of blood calcium is dependent on parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and the presence of vitamin D. Parathyroid hormone maintains blood calcium level by increasing its absorption in the intestines from food and reducing its excretion by the kidneys. Parathyroid hormone also stimulates the release of calcium into the blood stream from the bones. Hyperparathyroidism, caused by tumors of the parathyroid, causes the bones to lose too much calcium and become soft and fragile. Calcitonin produces a hypocalcemic effect by inhibiting the effect of parathyroid hormone and preventing calcium from leaving bones. Vitamin D stimulates calcium and phosphate absorption in the small intestine and increases calcium and phosphate utilization from bone. Hypercalcemia may be caused by abnormal calcium/phosphorus ratio, hyperparathyroidism, hypervitaminosis D, and hyperproteinemia. Hypocalcemia may be caused by hypoproteinemia, renal failure, or pancreatitis (Bistner, 1995).
Because approximately 98 percent of the total body potassium is found at the intracellular level, potassium is the major intracellular cation. This cation is filtered by the glomeruli in the kidneys and nearly completely reabsorbed by the proximal tubules. It is then excreted by the distal tubules. There is no renal threshold for potassium and it continues to be excreted in the urine even in low potassium states. Therefore, the body has no mechanism to prevent excessive loss of potassium (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1995).
Potassium plays a critical role in maintaining the normal cellular and muscular function. Any imbalance of the body's potassium level, increased or decreased, may result in neuromuscular dysfunction, especially in the heart muscle. Serious, and sometimes fatal, arrythmias may develop. A low serum potassium level, hypokalemia, occurs with major fluid loss in gastrointestinal disorders (i.e., vomiting, diarrhea), renal disease, diuretic therapy, diabetes mellitus, or mineralocorticoid dysfunction (i.e., Cushing's disease). An increased serum potassium level, hyperkalemia, occurs most often in urinary obstruction, anuria, or acute renal disease (Bistner, 1995).
Sodium and its related anions (i.e., chloride and bicarbonate) are primarily responsible for the osmotic attraction and retention of water in the extracellular fluid compartments. The endothelial membrane is freely permeable to these small electrolytes. Sodium is the most abundant extracellular cation, however, very little is present intracellularly. The main functions of sodium in the body include maintenance of membrane potentials and initiation of action potentials in excitable membranes. The sodium concentration also largely determines the extracellular osmolarity and volume. The differential concentration of sodium is the principal force for the movement of water across cellular membranes. In addition, sodium is involved in the absorption of glucose and some amino acids from the gastrointestinal tract (Lehninger, 1993). Sodium is ingested with food and water, and is lost from the body in urine, feces, and sweat. Most sodium secreted into the GI tract is reabsorbed. The excretion of sodium is regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1995).
Decreased serum sodium levels, hyponatremia, can be seen in adrenal insufficiency, inadequate sodium intake, renal insufficiency, vomiting or diarrhea, and uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. Hypernatremia may occur in dehydration, water deficit, hyperadrenocorticism, and central nervous system trauma or disease (Bistner, 1995).
Chloride is the major extracellular anion. Chloride and bicarbonate ions are important in the maintenance of acid-base balance. When chloride in the form of hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride is lost, alkalosis follows; when chloride is retained or ingested, acidosis follows. Elevated serum chloride levels, hyperchloremia, can be seen in renal disease, dehydration, overtreatment with saline solution, and carbon dioxide deficit (as occurs from hyperventilation). Decreased serum chloride levels, hypochloremia, can be seen in diarrhea and vomiting, renal disease, overtreatment with certain diuretics, diabetic acidosis, hypoventilation (as occurs in pneumonia or emphysema), and adrenal insufficiency (de Morais, 1995).
As seen above, one to two milliliters of blood can give a clinician a great insight to the way an animals' systems are functioning. With many more tests available and being developed every day, diagnosis becomes less invasive to the patient. The more information that is made available to the doctor allows a faster diagnosis and recovery for the patient.


Bibliography

Barrie, Joan and Timothy D. G. Watson. "Hyperlipidemia."
Current Veterinary Therapy XII. Ed. John Bonagura.
Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1995.

Bistner, Stephen l. Kirk and Bistner's Handbook of Veterinary
Procedures and Emergency Treatment. Philadelphia: W. B.
Saunders, 1995.

de Morais, HSA and William W. Muir. "Strong Ions and Acid-Base
Disorders." Current Veterinary Therapy XII. Ed. John
Bonagura. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1995.

Fraser, Clarence M., ed. The Merck Veterinary Manual, Seventh
Edition. Rahway, N. J.: Merck & Co., 1991.

Garrett, Reginald H. and Charles Grisham. Biochemistry. Fort
Worth: Saunders College Publishing, 1995.

Lehninger, Albert, David Nelson and Michael Cox. Principles of
Biochemistry. New York: Worth Publishers, 1993.

Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut. Animal Physiology: Adaptation and
environment. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Sodikoff, Charles. Labratory Profiles of Small Animal Diseases.
Santa Barbara: American Veterinary Publications, 1995.

The Circulatory System


The circulatory system in anatomy and physiology is the course taken by the blood through the arteries, capillaries, and veins and back to the heart. In humans and the higher vertebrates, the heart is made up of four chambers the right and left auricles, or atria, and the right and left ventricles. The right side of the heart pumps oxygen-poor blood from the cells of the body back to the lungs for new oxygen; the left side of the heart receives blood rich in oxygen from the lungs and pumps it through the arteries to the various parts of the body. Circulation begins early in fetal life. It is estimated that a given portion of the blood completes its course of circulation in approximately 30 seconds.
Pulmonary circulation is where the blood from the entire body is transported to the right auricle through two large veins. The superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. When the right auricle contracts, it forces the blood through an opening into the right ventricle. Contraction of this ventricle drives the blood to the lungs. Blood is prevented from returning into the auricle by the tricuspid valve, which completely closes during contraction of the ventricle. In its passage through the lungs, the blood is oxygenated, that is, then it is brought back to the heart by the four pulmonary veins, which enter the left auricle. When this chamber contracts, blood is forced into the left ventricle and then by ventricular contraction into the aorta. The bicuspid, or mitral, valve prevents the blood from flowing back into the auricle, and the semilunar valves at the beginning of the aorta stop it from flowing back into the ventricle. Similar valves are present in the pulmonary artery.
The aorta divides into a number of main branches, which in turn divide into smaller ones until the entire body is supplied by an elaborately branching series of blood vessels. The smallest arteries divide into a fine network of still more minute vessels, the capillaries, which have extremely thin walls; thus, the blood is enabled to come into close relation with the fluids and tissues of the body. In the capillaries, the blood performs three functions then it releases its oxygen to the tissues, it furnishes to the body cells the nutrients and other essential substances that it carries, and it takes up waste products from the tissues. The capillaries then unite to form small veins. The veins, in turn, unite with each other to form larger veins until the blood is finally collected into the superior and inferior venae cavae from which it goes to the heart, completing the circuit.
In addition to the pulmonary and systemic circulations described above, a subsidiary to the venous system exists, known as portal circulation. A certain amount of blood from the intestine is collected into the portal vein and carried to the liver. There it enters into the open spaces called sinusoids, where it comes into direct contact with the liver cells. In the liver important changes occur in the blood, which is carrying the products of the digestion of food recently absorbed through the intestinal capillaries. The blood is collected a second time into veins, where it again joins the general circulation through the right auricle. In its passage through other organs, the blood is further modified.
Coronary circulation is the means by which the heart tissues themselves are supplied with nutrients and oxygen and are freed of wastes. Just beyond the semilunar valves, two coronary arteries branch from the aorta. These then break up into an elaborate capillary network in the heart muscle and valve tissue. Blood from the coronary capillary circulation enters several small veins, which then enter directly into the right auricle without first passing into the vena cava.
The action of the heart consists of successive alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscular walls of the auricles and ventricles. During the period of relaxation, the blood flows from the veins into the two auricles, gradually distending them. At the end of this period, the auricles are completely dilated then their muscular walls contract, forcing almost the entire contents through the auriculoventricular openings into the ventricles. This action is sudden and occurs almost simultaneously in both auricles. The mass of blood in the veins makes it impossible for any blood to flow backward. The force of blood flowing into the ventricles is not powerful enough to open the semilunar valves, but it distends the ventricles, which are still in a condition of relaxation. The tricuspid and mitral valves open with the blood current and close readily at the beginning of ventricular contraction.
The ventricular systole immediately follows the auricular systole. The ventricular contraction is slower, but far more forcible then the ventricular chambers are virtually emptied at each systole. The apex of the heart is thrown forward and upward with a slight rotary motion then this impulse, called the apex beat, can be detected between the fifth and sixth ribs. The heart is entirely at rest for a short time after the ventricular systole occurs. The entire cycle can be divided into three periods then in the first, the auricles contract and in the second, the ventricles contract; in the third, both the auricles and the ventricles remain at rest. In humans, with a normal heart rate of approximately 72 heartbeats per minute, the cardiac cycle has a duration of about 0.8 second. Auricular systole requires about 0.1 second; ventricular systole occupies approximately 0.3 second. Thus, the heart is completely at rest for about 0.4 second, or during perhaps half of each cardiac cycle.
With every beat, the heart emits two sounds, which are followed by a short pause. The first sound, coinciding with the ventricular systole, is dull and protracted. The second sound, made by the sudden closure of the semilunar valves, is shorter and much sharper. Diseases of the heart valves may change these sounds, and many factors, including exercise, cause wide variations in the heartbeat, even in healthy people. The normal heart rate of animals varies widely from species to species. At one extreme, the heart of a hibernating mammal may beat only a few times a minute; at the other, the hummingbird has a heart rate of 2000 heartbeats per minute.
When it enters the arteries at the moment of ventricular contraction, the blood stretches the walls of the arteries. During diastole, the distended arteries return to their normal diameter, in part because of the elasticity of connective tissue and in part because of the contraction of muscles in the arterial walls. This return to normal is important in maintaining a continuous flow of blood through the capillaries during the period while the heart is at rest. The expansion and contraction of the arterial walls that can be felt in all the arteries near the surface of the skin is called the pulse.
The rate and strength of the heartbeat are controlled by nerves through a series of reflexes that speed it up or slow it down. The impulse to contraction, however, is not dependent on external nervous stimuli, but arises in the heart muscle itself. A small bit of specialized tissue called the sinoauricular node, embedded in the wall of the right auricle, is responsible for initiating the heartbeat. The contraction then spreads over the auricles in the septum between the auricles, it excites another node called the auriculoventricular node. The auriculoventricular bundle conducts the impulse from this node to the muscles of the ventricles, and in this way contraction and relaxation of the heart are coordinated. Each phase of the cardiac cycle is associated with the production of an electrical potential that can be recorded by electrical instruments to produce a reading known as an electrocardiogram.
Circulation of the blood in superficial capillaries can be observed under the microscope. The red blood cells can be seen moving along rapidly in the middle of the blood current, while the white cells advance more slowly along the walls of the capillaries. The capillaries present a far larger surface with which the blood comes in contact than do other blood vessels end because they consequently offer the greatest resistance to the progress of the blood, they have a great influence on the circulation. Capillaries expand when temperature rises and help to cool the blood then they contract in cold and help preserve internal heat.

"BUBONIC PLAGUE"

The disease is called the Bubonic Plague. It is caused by the bacteria Bacillus. Also now known as the "Bubonic plague". It is a plague because of its widespread fatality throughout history. The cause of this disease is the Yersinia petis bacterium. The Bubonic plague is transmitted from fleas to humans. You can contract the disease either by being bitten by the oriental flea, Xenopsylla Cheopis, or be exposed to plague infected tissue.
The "Bubonic Plague" has an incubation period of 2 to 6 days. Within a week the body's temperature rises to 104 degrees F. Shortly after they show signs of a fever other symptoms come about which are delirium, mental disorganization, shivering, vomiting, headache, giddiness, intolerance to light, and a white coating on your tongue. The symptoms become worse as the disease spread through the bloodstream and lymphatic system. The later symptoms, as you begin to experience the last stages of the disease, are your back starts to hurt and painful swelling of your lymph nodes. Hard lumps filled with blood and puss called "boboes",from which the disease gets it name, form on various parts of your lymphatic system, such as your neck, inner thigh, groin, and armpits. This stage is the most painful. Blood vessels break and later the dry blood turns black underneath your skin.
The treatment for the plague is a vaccine that lasts 6 months. You can use the preferred vaccine Streptomycin, or gentamicin, teracyclines, or chloramphenicol are all good substitutes. The treatment must start within 15 hours of the first symptom of death is inevitable.
Some special characteristics of this disease are you can be any age to contract it, it is most common is unsanitary condition, or where there are an abundance of rodents and if untreated death will occur within 3 days. The most amazing fact about this disease is that it has killed over 75 million people over the centuries.

Medical technology has seemed to advance enough so that doctors are able to perform brain transplants. So far this procedure has only been successfully performed on animals, and now doctors hope to perform this procedure on humans. I believe brain transplants should not be performed at all, and especially not on humans because of the numerous problems and side effects that could arise.

Even though brain transplants can be successfully performed on animals, this does not mean that it will be successful with humans. The human brain is much more complex than the brain of animals, so there will be many more complications during surgery. For example, the healthy brain that was removed could have been damaged in some way without the doctors knowing it. It would also be very difficult to attach a person's brain in a different body because of the millions of neurons that send and receive messages to and from all over the body. It would be almost impossible to reconnect every single neuron, and without them a person could not function normally. Many psychological effects are also possible because the human brain is so complex. Our brain makes us who we are, and with a different brain we would no longer be unique. A person with a different brain would seem to be a total stranger and in many ways they would be. Hopefully these dangerous side effects will convince doctors not to perform this pr
ocedure on humans.

The advancement of technology can be very beneficial to everyone, but I do not believe that this medical technology of brain transplants will help anyone. We were all born with one brain and through childhood to adolescence our mind developed into who we are. No one should steal our identity from us, even if we are seriously injured, and change it to a completely new one. Also for the people who have died with healthy brains, that was their identity and it should not be given to anyone else.

Another problem with brain transplants is how can doctors choose what are "healthy" or "normal" brains. An elderly person who has died would have an aged brain that would not be as efficient as a younger person's brain. Then would doctors have to find healthy brains of the same age as the person who needs it? This could also bring up other factors such as intelligence, gender, or physical problems that a person might have had before death. Also another problem might be with the period of time a brain can be kept "alive" after death and how it can be kept "alive" without damage. Overall, my feelings about this surgery are that it should not be done on humans until doctors have overcome all the problems and obstacles that stand in their way of making brain transplants with humans successful.

Anabolic steroids are synthetic coumpounds formulated to be like the
male sex hormone testosterone. Many athletes use anabolic steroids male
and female alike, such as body builders , weightlifters, baseball players,
football players, swimmers, and runners. They do so because they mistakenly
believe that they will gain strength and size.
In a male testosterone is released by the leydig cells in the testes. The
testosterone has two main functions androgenic and anabolic. Androgenic is
the development of male sex characteristics. Anabolic is the development of
muscle tissue.
To treat patients who suffer from a natural lack of testosterone
pharmacoligists alter one form of testosterone slightly, increasing th length of
time the drug is active. Testosterone was first isolated in 1935, soon forms of
testosterone such as dianabol, durabolin, deca-durabolin, and winstrol were
produced.
One of the main effects of anabolic steroids is to increase the number
of red blood cells and muscle tissue without producing much of the
androgenic effects of testosterone. There are only four legal uses for steroids
treatment for certain forms of cancer, pituatary dwarfism, and serious
hormone disturbances.
There are two forms of anabolic steroids those taken orally and those
injected. The immediate effects of both are mood swings of many different
kinds. In one study, physicians Ian Wilson, Arthur Prang, Jr., and Patricio
Lara found that four out of five men suffering from dippresion when given a
steroid suffered from dillusions. A research team from Great Britian Found
that a patient given steroids became dizzy, dissoriented, and incoherent.
Physicians William Layman and William Annitto have had a case of a
young man who was diagnosed as schizophrenic took steriods to help with
his wieghtlifting. After taking these drugs he suffered severe deppresion and
anxiety and had trouble sleeping.
Most people who use steroids do not have side affects this severe.
Steroids make changes in the electroencephalogram (an image of brain
ellectrical activity). Researchers believe that these changes are responsible for
some of the behavior changes in users of steroids like increased hostility
and aggressivness.

Even though there not supposed to some of the masculinizing effects
of testosterone still show on users of anabolic steroid . People who use
them sometimes develop acne, deepend voice, abnormal hair growth. Some
of these side effects can not be reveresed. Men who use steroids may become
more or less interested in sex.
The most severe effect of anabolic steroids is on the liver they call it
peliosis hepatis or blood filled cysts in the liver. If the cysts rupture they can
cause liver failure which can kill a person. After stoping the use of steroids
though these cysts may become smaller and dissapear. Steroids can also
cause cancerous tumors in the liver that can also kill they can also dissapear
if the drugs are not used anymore. Steroids are also increase the risk of
getting gallstones.

Use of steroids also effects your cardiovascular system. There are two
kinds of cholesterol in your body high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL)
and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. HDL is good for the body but LDL is
very hazardous to your health. Using steroids lowers the number of HDL in
the body in most of the users. The lowering of the amount of HDL in the
body puts the person at a higher risk of developing high blood pressure and

blood-clotting problems. Some of the physicians also think that steroids also
cause abnormal fat deposits in the body and changes the way the body
processes carbohydrates.
Men who use steroids also can develop serious reproductive system
problems. Steroids lower the amount of sperm in the semen which makes
conception difficult or even impossible. A mans testes will decrease in size,
and the amount of natural testosterone and the hormones that nourish them
also decrease. In some users the prostate gland will get larger. Most of the
symptoms of the drug use goes away after the drug is not used anymore but
some of them stay such as abnormal tissue in the liver, testes, and prostate
gland.
There are also serious effects that take place in women as well. besides
the masculinizing effects the steroids lower the amount of female hormones
for example estrogen and progestrogen which are essential to the function of
a womens menstrual cycle. Some women claim to stop menstruating
completely.
Steroids are prohibited in any competion wether it be international or
national. Even though this is true many top athletes as well as amateur
athletes use steroids. Athletes first used drugs in compettition in 1954 when
the team physician for the world weight lifting team, John Ziegler, went with
the team to the world championships in Vienna, Austria. Ziegler then met the
Russian team doctor that told him that the Russians where using testosterone.
Ziegler brough the news back to the united states and soon every weight lifter
was using steroids. Thirty years later it was said that four out of five weight
lifters where using steroids.
I told you earlier that there is only four legal uses for steroids but in a
recent report it was said that only 20-30% of the steroids produced where
used for those purposes. Another study taken of where the athletes got these
drugs said that 36% of them got them from a physcian, 10% got them from
trainers, 9% from pharmacists, and 45% said that they bought them illegally.
Now the big question. Why do atheletes use this drug? Well its
because of the false information that steroids will get you bigger and stronger
than a person that is dieting and training hard. Researchers have concluded
though that using steroids does not get the user any bigger or stronger but
only increases hostility and aggresiveness. Some researchers say that the
added aggresivness and hostility may make a person train and work harder.

Part of the body size contraversy is about the type of tissue

growth that drugs promote. Now, every researcher agrees that steroids do

make the users gain weight, but some researchers think it's in real muscle

tissue and others think that it's in abnormal muscle tissue and that the weight

gained is due to water retained in the body. The ASCM states that steroids

gain weight only in the lean mass compartment of the body.

In May of 1986 the federal government set up a task force with the

U.S Department of Justice, the Food and Drug Administration, and the

Federal Bureau of Investigation to prosecute anabolic steroid users as well as

dealers. The first athlete to go to prison on steroid use charges was former

british track star David Jenkins. He was sentenced to seven years and was

fined $75,000 in 1987. By 1990 there was 125 legal actions on steroid related

charges in twenty seven different federal districts. About eighty five people

recieved charges totaling up to eighty years in jail time on steroid related

charges. They were fined $1.2 million and the government has siezed about

$18 million dollars worth of anabolic steroids that includes counterfeit,

diverted and smuggled supplies. The Food Drug Administration has limited

the number of anabolic steroids that can be sold and because of this it is

estimated that the black market makes about $400 million a year on

anabolic steroids alone.

Most pharmacies that manufacture anabolic steroids have improved

their security efforts. Some of the steroids have actually been taken off the

market which makes it even more difficult for the black market dealers to

obtain legal manufactured drugs. New ways for the dealers to make and buy

the drug have been created to serve the demand for them. The government

now believes that most of the steroids now produced and being sold are more

of a health risk.

A spokesman for the Justice Department anabolic steroid offenses are

"a high priority item" for the government. One of the highest concerns is

steroids and there attraction to younger people because they are exposed to

drug dealers so much. Many of these kids buy drugs that are unsterile and

have been manufactured under filthy conditions.

So far in this report all I have been talking about is the bad things that

anabolic steroids have been asssociated with well now its time to talk about

some of the good things that they are good for. Anabolic Steroids are used for

some medical applications such as chronically ill patients during nutritional

support, patients with cronic anemias, patients undergoing kidney dialysis,

patients with osteporosis, patients with a defiiciency of testosterone.

Following trauma or major surgery patients usually respond to the

stress with a catabolic response which is attributed to increased body

demands for proteins and calories for wound healing and energy production.

If these demands by the body are not met a significant wasting of body

tissues will occur. The wasting of body tissue is vital to the patient. So
doctors give patients anabolic steroids in this stage till the patient gets back to

his or her normal stage.
Throughout my research of this topic I read alot of diffferent stories

about anabolic steroids. I read from the researchers that anabolic steroids
show few if any effects at all and I read from athletes that there is a very

large effect on muscle gain and endurance. I came across only one book
though that addressed this issue between researchers and atheletes. The book

sayed that The American College of Sports Medicine stated a report on the
use and abuse of anabolic steroids. It stated that for many people any benefits
of anabolic steroids are small and not worth the health risk. Yet almost all the
athletes who use anabolic steroids feel that the steroids had a great effect and
that they would not have been successful without them. The big gap between
researchers and athletes has caused a big contraversy athletes say one thing
and researchers say another. The researchers have found a reason that maybe
is the cause that anabolic steroid users see efects that researchers say are not
possible they call it the "placebo effect".

The placebo effect works by the power of suggestion athletes believe
that the steroids will improve there performance so they do. The placebo
effect is real the performance is improved and the gains are not imagi

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
(Lou Gherig's Disease)

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis is a deadly disease of the nervous system. Also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, ALS at this time affects 25,000 people in the U.S. today. One in 50,000 people will be affected in any one year. The average age for diagnosis of ALS is between 30 and 70, although there have been cases of teenagers contracting it.The average life span after diagnosis are three to 10 years, although 20 percent of those affected will outlive their prognosis by a number of years. ALS affects more men than women. Approximately 60 percent of those affected are male, 40 percent are female.

Little is known about the exact cause of ALS at this time, although it can be traced back to chromosome 21. The defect is inherited as an autosmal dominant trait. Other theories such as metal poisons, viral infections, even aging have been considered. ALS attacks the motor neurons in your nervous system that control your muscles. Your motor neurons slowly deteriorate, causing your muscles to not receive information from your brain. Your muscles then become useless and begin to deteriorate.

Symptoms of ALS include:
Tripping and falling
Loss of motor control in hands and arms
Difficulty speaking and swallowing or difficulty breathing
Persistent fatigue
Twitching and cramping, sometimes severely





As ALS progresses, all voluntary muscles become useless. The patient cannot eat, breathe or communicate with others. Total life support may be the only thing keeping them alive. ALS can lead to total paralysis.

Although there is no cure, medications such as siazepam can assist with controlling spasms and muscle cramps and saliva. Siazepam can also help control muscle twitching. Physical therapy is important for patients with ALS to maintain flexibility in joints and to prevent contractures, or fixations of muscles.

Diagnosis of ALS is difficult, since there is no clinical or laboratory test to identify it. Diagnosis is done through careful examination of a patient's history, neurological testing, and electromyograms.

Researchers have been studying whether a defective metabolism of glutamate, an amino acid, is detrimental to the nerve cells in the muscles of ALS patients. Scientists are trying to determine whether they can prevent the toxic effects of glutamate. Other scientists are studying Threostat, which may increase the amino acid called glycine, which might neutralize glutamate found in ALS patients.

ALS and Muscular Dystrophy are commonly confused due to their similar symptoms. The main difference is that ALS affects the nervous system, whereas Muscular dystrophy affects the muscle.







Sources
"ALS." Internet site. Post date: June 1995.

Hopkins, Harold. "Amyotrophic Latral Sclerosis." CD-ROM: Grolier Encyclopedia. 1995 ed.

Williams, D. B. "Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis." Mayo Clinic Proc. Jan. 1991.
Found on CD-ROM: The Family Doctor.

Alzheimer's Disease is a progressive and irreversible brain disease that destroys mental
and physical functioning in human beings, and invariably leads to death. It is the fourth
leading cause of adult death in the United States. Alzheimer's creates emotional and
financial catastrophe for many American families every year, but fortunately, a large
amount of progress is being made to combat Alzheimer's disease every year. To fully be able
to comprehend and combat Alzheimer's disease, one must know what it does to the brain,
the part of the human body it most greatly affects. Many Alzheimer's disease sufferers had
their brains examined. A large number of differences were present when comparing the
normal brain to the Alzheimer's brain. There was a loss of nerve cells from the Cerebral
Cortex in the Alzheimer's victim. Approximately ten percent of the neurons in this region
were lost. But a ten percent loss is relatively minor, and cannot account for the severe
impairment suffered by Alzheimer's victims. Neurofibrillary Tangles are also found in the
brains of Alzheimer's victims. They are found within the cell bodies of nerve cells in the
cerebral cortex, and take on the structure of a paired helix. Other diseases that have
"paired helixes" include Parkinson's disease, Down's Syndrome, and Dementia Pugilistica.
Scientists are not sure how the paired helixes are related in these very different
diseases. Neuritic Plaques are patches of clumped material lying outside the bodies of
nerve cells in the brain. They are mainly found in the cerebral cortex, but have also
been seen in other areas of the brain. At the core of each of these plaques is a substance
called amyloid, an abnormal protein not usually found in the brain. This amyloid core is
surrounded by cast off fragments of dead or dying nerve cells. The cell fragments include
dying mitochondria, presynaptic terminals, and paired helical filaments identical to
those that are neurofibrillary tangles. Many neuropathologists think that these plaques
are basically clusters of degenerating nerve cells. But they are still not sure of how and
why these fragments clustered together. Congophilic Angiopathy is the technical name that
neuropathologists have given to an abnormality found in the walls of blood vessels in the
brains of victims of Alzheimer's disease. These abnormal patches are similar to the
neuritic plaques that develop in Alzheimer's disease, in that amyloid has been found
within the blood-vessel walls wherever the patches occur. Another name for these patches
is cerebrovascular amyloid, meaning amyloid found in the blood vessels of the brains.
Acetylcholine is a substance that carries signals from one nerve cell to another. It is
known to be important to learning and memory. In the mid 1970s, scientists found that the
brains of those afflicted with Alzheimer's disease contained sixty to ninety percent less
of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase(CAT), which is responsible for producing
acetylcholine, than did the brains of healthy persons. This was a great milestone, as it
was the first functional change related to learning and memory, and not to different
structures. Somatostatin is another means by which cells in the brain communicate with each
other. The quantities of this chemical messenger, like those of CAT, are also greatly
decreased in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus of persons with Alzheimer's disease,
almost to the same degree as CAT is lost. Although scientists have been able to identify
many of these, and other changes, they are not yet sure as to how, or why they take
place in Alzheimer's disease. One could say, that they have most of the pieces of the
puzzle; all that is left to do is find the missing piece and decipher the meaning. If
treatment is required for someone with Alzheimer's disease, then the Alzheimer's Disease
and Related Disorders Association(ADRDA), a privately funded, national, non-profit
organization dedicated to easing the burden of Alzheimer victims and their families and
finding a cure can be contacted. There are more than one hundred and sixty chapters
throughout the country, and over one thousand support groups that can be contacted for
help. ADRDA fights Alzheimer's on five fronts 1- funding research 2- educating and thus
increase public awareness 3- establishing chapters with support groups 4- encouraging
federal and local legislation to help victims and their families 5- providing a service to
help victims and their families find the proper care they need.

Albinism

The word "albinism" refers to a group of inherited conditions. People with albinism
have little or no pigment in their eyes, skin, or hair. They have inherited genes that do not
make the usual amounts of a pigment called melanin. One person in 17,000 has some type
of albinism. Albinism affects people from all races. Most children with albinism are born to
parents who have normal hair and eye color for their ethnic backgrounds. Albinism is
found on the eleventh chromosome, section q, loci 14-21.
Oculocutaneous albinism involves the eyes, hair, and skin. Ocular albinism involves
primarily the eye. People with ocular albinism may have slight lightening of hair and skin
colors as well, compared to other family members. At present researchers have found 10
different types of oculocutaneous albinism, and five types of ocular albinism. Newer
laboratory research studying DNA has shown that there are numerous types of changes in
the genes of those with albinism, including within families.

The most common types of oculocutaneous albinism are called "ty-negative" and
"ty-positive". Persons with ty-negative albinism have no melanin pigmentation, and more
difficulty with vision. Those with ty-positive albinism have very slight pigmentation, and
generally less severe visual difficulties. Tests were done on the hair roots of individuals
with albinism, to tell these types of albinism apart. However, these hair tests cannot
identify types of albinism, particularly in young children, whose pigment
systems are immature. Therefore hair tests are not helpful in predicting the extent of visual
disability of a child.
"Ty-Neg" (also called Type 1A) albinism results from a genetic defect in an
enzyme called tyrosinase. Tyrosinase helps the body to change the amino acid tyrosine into
pigment. The genetic defect that causes albinism in other types of albinism is unknown,
but it is speculated that it involves other enzymes used to make pigment.

Albinism is passed from parents to their children through genes. For nearly all
types of albinism both parents must carry an albinism gene to have a child with albinism.
Parents may have normal pigmentation but still carry the gene. When both parents carry
the gene, and neither parent has albinism, there is a one in four chance at each pregnancy
that the baby will be born with albinism. This type of inheritance is called autosomal
recessive inheritance.
If a parent has a child with albinism, it means the parent must carry the albinism
gene. Until recently, unless a person has albinism or has a child with albinism, there was no
way of knowing whether he or she carries the gene for albinism. Recently a test has been
developed to identify carriers of the gene for ty-negative albinism and for other types in
which the tyrosinase enzyme does not function. The test uses a sample of blood to identify
the gene for the tryrosinase enzyme by its DNA code. A similar test can identify ty-
negative or similar albinism in unborn babies, by aminiocentesis.

People with albinism have very normal lives. They play sports, have normal
intelligence, and can have babies. The only difference between normal people and albino
is that they don't have pigment in their skin.

Acquired Immune Difficiency Syndrome
AIDS is a life and death issue. To have the AIDS diseas is at present a sentence of
slow but inevitable death. I've already lost one friend to AIDS. I may soon lose others.
My own sexual behavior and that of many of my friends has been profoundly altered
by it. In my part of the country, one man in10 may already be carrying the AIDS virus.
While the figures may currently be less in much of the rest of the country, this is
changing rapidly. There currently is neither a cure, nor even an effective treatment, and no
vaccine either. But there are things that have been PROVEN immensely effective in slowing
the spread of this hideously lethal disease. In this essay I hope to present this
information. History and Overview
AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Defficiency Disease. It is caused by a virus. The
disease originated somewhere in Africa about 20 years ago. There it first appeared as a
mysterious ailment afflicting primarily heterosexuals of both sexes. It probably was
spread especially fast by primarily female prostitutes there. AIDS has already become a
crisis of STAGGERING proportions in parts of Africa. In Zaire, it is estimated that over
twenty percent of the adults currently carry the virus. That figure is increasing. And what
occurred there will, if no cure is found, most likely occur here among heterosexual folks.
AIDS was first seen as a disease of gay males in this country. This was a result of
the fact that gay males in this culture in the days before AIDS had an average of 200 to
400 new sexual contacts per year. This figure was much higher than common practice
among heterosexual (straight) men or women. In addition, it turned out that rectal sex
was a particularly effective way to transmit the disease, and rectal sex is a
common practice among gay males. For these reasons, the disease spread in the gay male
population of this country immensely more quickly than in other populations. It became to
be thought of as a "gay disease". Because the disease is spread primarily by exposure of
ones blood to infected blood or semen, I.V. drug addicts who shared needles also soon
were identified as an affected group. As the AIDS epidemic began to affect
increasingly large fractions of those two populations (gay males and IV drug abusers),
many of the rest of this society looked on smugly, for both populations tended to be
despised by the "mainstream" of society here.
But AIDS is also spread by heterosexual sex. In addition, it is spread by blood
transfusions. New born babies can acquire the disease from infected mothers during
pregnancy. Gradually more and more "mainstream" folks got the disease. Most recently, a
member of congress died of the disease. Finally, even the national news media began to
join in the task of educating the public to the notion that AIDS can affect everyone.
Basic medical research began to provide a few bits of information, and some
help. The virus causing the disease was isolated and identified. The AIDS virus turned out
to be a very unusual sort of virus. Its genetic material was not DNA, but RNA. When it
infected human cells, it had its RNA direct the synthesis of viral DNA. While RNA
viruses are not that uncommon, very few RNA viruses reproduce by setting up the flow
of information from RNA to DNA. Such reverse or "retro" flow of information does not
occur at all in any DNA virus or any other living things. Hence, the virus was said to
belong to the rare group of virues called "Retro Viruses". Research provided the means to
test donated blood for the presence of the antibodies to the virus, astronomically reducing
the chance of ones getting AIDS from a blood transfusion. This was one of the first real
breakthroughs. The same discoveries that allowed us to make our blood bank blood supply
far safer also allowed us to be able to tell (in most cases) whether one has been exposed to
the AIDS virus using a simple blood test

Abstract from: Cloning : Where Do We Draw the Line?

The first attempt in cloning was conducted in 1952 on a group of frogs. The experiment was a partial success. The frog cells were cloned into other living frogs however, only one in every thousand developed normally , all of which were sterile. The rest of the frogs that survived grew to abnormally large sizes. In 1993, scientist and director of the in vitro lab at George Washington University, Jerry Hall and associate Robert Stillman, reported the first ever successful cloning of human embryos. It was the discovery of in-vitro fertilization in the 1940's that began the pursuit to ease the suffering of infertile couples. After years of research, scientists learned that "in a typical in-vitro procedure, doctors will insert three to five embryos in hopes that, at most, one or two will implant" (Elmer-Dewitt 38). And that "a woman with only one embryo has about a 10% to 20% chance of getting pregnant through in-vitro fertilization. If that embryo could be cloned and turned into three or four, the cha
nces of a successful pregnancy would increase significantly"(Elmer-Dewitt 38).

The experiment the scientists performed is the equivalent of a mother producing twins. The process has been practiced and almost perfected in livestock for the past ten years, and some scientists believe that it seems only logical that it would be the next step in in-vitro fertilization. The procedure was remarkably simple. Hall and Stillman "selected embryos that were abnormal because they came from eggs that had been fertilized by more than one sperm" (Elmer-Dewitt 38), because the embryos were defective, it would have been impossible for the scientist to actually clone another person. They did however, split the embryos into separate cells, as a result creating separate and identical clones. They began experimenting on seventeen of the defective embryos and "when one of those single-celled embryos divided into two cell...the scientists quickly separated the cells, creating two different embryos with the same genetic information" (Elmer-Dewitt 38). The cells are coated with a protective covering "c
alled a zona pellucida, that is essential to development" (Elmer-Dewitt 38), which was stripped away and replaced with a gel-like substance made from seaweed that Hall had been experimenting with. The scientists were able to produce forty-eight clones, all of which died within six days. Other scientist have been quoted saying that although the experiment is fairly uncomplicated, it had not been tested before because of the moral and ethical issues surrounding an experiment such as this one. Some people believe that aiding infertile couples is the only true benefit to cloning human embryos, and fear that if the research is continued it could get out of hand. Other advantages that have been suggested include freezing human embryos for later use, in the event that a child should get sick or die. If a parent has had their child's embryos cloned and frozen and their child dies at an early age of crib death, the parents could have one of the frozen embryos de-thawed and implanted into the womb. Nine months l
ater, the mother would give birth to a child that was identical to the one they had lost. Or if a four year old child develops leukemia and requires a bone marrow transplant. A couple could implant a pre-frozen embryos clone of their first child and produce an identical twin as a guarantee for a perfect match. The parents would therefore have identical twins that were four years apart. The disadvantages are endless. If this type of technique were exploited and used in vain, we could be heading down "a tunnel of madness"(Elmer-Dewitt 37). "Researchers have developed DNA- analysis techniques to screen embryos for...disorders, but the procedures require snipping cells off embryos, a process that sometimes kills them"( Elmer-Dewitt 39). It is expected that the idea of throwing away an embryos because it is disease ridden will throw pro-life activists into a frenzy (Elmer-Dewitt 39). It is one thing to exercise the freedom of chose to abort an unwanted child for whatever reason, but to throw one away due to a
pre understanding that it carries a disease, in my opinion, is unethical. These types of possibilities are producing moral and ethical debates among ethicists the world over. Most countries have set regulations concerning cloning human embryos and in some countries it is an offense punishable by law and requires incarceration . Between the medical contributions and the ethical questions surrounding cloning human embryos, it is unlikely that we will have the opportunity to discover if further research to Hall and Stillman's experiment could actually produce human beings.





References
Elmer-Dewitt, Philip. "Cloning: Where Do We Draw the Line?" Time Magazine. November 8th, 1993: 37-42.

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INTRODUCTION
The Drosophila melanogaster, more commonly known as the fruit fly, is a popular species used in genetic experiments. In fact, Thomas Hunt Morgan began using Drosophila in the early 1900's to study genes and their relation to certain chromosomes(Biology 263). Scientists have located over 500 genes on the four chromosomes in the fly. There are many advantages in using Drosophila for these types of studies. Drosophila melanogaster can lay hundreds of eggs after just one mating, and have a generation time of two weeks at 21°C(Genetics: Drosophila Crosses 9). Another reason for using fruit flies is that they mature rather quickly and don't require very much space. Drosophila melanogaster has a life cycle of four specific stages. The first stage is the egg, which is about .5mm long. In the 24 hours when the fly is in the egg stage, numerous cleavage nuclei form. Next, the egg hatches to reveal the larva. During this stage, growth and molting occur. Once growth is complete, the Drosophila enter the pupal
stage, where it develops into an adult through metamorphosis. Upon reaching adulthood, the flies are ready to mate and produce the next generation of Drosophila melanogaster.
During this experiment, monohybrid and dihybrid crosses were conducted with Drosophila melanogaster. Our objective was to examine the inheritance from one generation to the next. We collected the data from the crosses and analyzed them in relation to the expected results.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
For the monohybrid cross in this experiment, we used an F1 generation, which resulted from the mating of a male homozygous wild-type eyed fly with a female homozygous sepia eyed fly. Males and females are distinguished by differences in body shape and size. Males have a darker and rounder abdomen in comparison to females, which are more pointed. Another difference occurs on the forelegs of the flies-males have a small bump called sex combs. At week 0, after being anaesthitized by fly-nap, three males and three females were identified under a dissecting microscope and placed in a plastic vial with a foam stopper at the end. The vial remained on it's side until the flies regained consciousness so that they didn't get trapped by the culture medium at the bottom. We allowed the Drosophila to incubate and reproduce for a week.
After one week, the vial contains many larva in addition to the F1 generation flies. Next, we removed the F1 generation flies to prevent breeding between the two generations. Acting as Dr. Kevorkian, we gave the F1 generation a lethal dose of the seemingly harmless anesthesia, fly-nap. A trumpet solo of "Taps" played in our minds as we said goodbye and placed them in the fly morgue. We allowed the F2 larval generation to incubate for two weeks. The experiment called for one week of incubation, but Easter fell during that week which interfered with our lab time. After the two weeks, the F2 flies were also terminally anaesthetized. Only, before saying goodbye, we separated the flies according to sex and eye color(wild-type,red or mutant, sepia), recording the results in Table 1.
The same method was used it the dihybrid cross, except, instead of one trait, two traits were observed. The traits were eye-color(wild-type, red or mutant, sepia) and wing formation(wild-type, full or mutant, vestigial). The F1 generation for the dihybrid cross came from a cross between a male homozygous wild-type for eyes and wings, and a female homozygous for sepia eyes and vestigial wings. The results of this cross were recorded and appear in Table 2.
RESULTS
The monohybrid cross of Drosophila melanogaster produced 25,893 flies for all of the sections combined. Of those flies, 75.9% had wild-type(red) eyes, and 24.1% had mutant(sepia eyes). Overall, more females were produced than males.
TABLE 1: F1 Generation Monohybrid Cross of Drosophila melanogaster (+se x +se)
PHENOTYPE CLASS RESULTS RESULTS FROM ALL CLASSES NUMBER PERCENT RATIO NUMBER PERCENT RATIO
MALES
WILD-TYPE EYES 562 74.8% 3.0 8,960 75.4% 3.1
SEPIA EYES 189 25.2% 1 2,923 24.6% 1
FEMALES
WILD-TYPE EYES 806 75.6% 3.1 10,685 76.3% 3.2
SEPIA EYES 260 24.4% 1 3,325 23.7% 1
BOTH SEXES
WILD-TYPE EYES 1368 75.3% 3.0 19,645 75.9% 3.1
SEPIA EYES 449 24.7% 1 6,248 24.1% 1

The dihybrid cross produced a total of 26, 623 flies for all of the sections combined. 54.9% of the flies had wild-type eyes(red) and wild-type wings(full), 17.7% had wild-type eyes and vestigial wings, 21.3% had sepia eyes and full wings, and 6.1% had sepia eyes and vestigial wings. Again, the number of females produced exceeded the number of males.
TABLE 2: F1 Generation Dihybrid Cross of Drosophila melanogaster(+vg+se x +vg+se)
PHENOTYPE CLASS RESULTS RESULTS FROM ALL CLASSES
MALES NUMBER PERCENT RATIO NUMBER PERCENT RATIO
WILD-TYPE EYES WILD-TYPE WINGS 244 47.8% 6.3 6987 54.4% 8.6
WILD-TYPE EYES VESTIGIAL WINGS 132 25.9% 3.4 2315 18% 2.9
SEPIA EYES WILD-TYPE WINGS 95 18.6% 2.4 2727 21.2% 3.4
SEPIA EYES VESTIGIAL WINGS 39 7.6% 1 808 6.4% 1
FEMALES
WILD-TYPE EYES WILD-TYPE WINGS 281 51.1% 7.0 7615 55.2% 9.3
WILD-TYPE EYES VESTIGIAL WINGS 100 18.2% 2.5 2397 17.4% 2.9
SEPIA EYES WILD-TYPE WINGS 129 23.5% 3.2 2953 21.4% 3.6
SEPIA EYES VESTIGIAL WINGS 40 7.3% 1 821 6.0% 1
BOTH SEXES
WILD-TYPE EYES WILD-TYPE WINGS 525 49.5% 6.6 14,602 54.9% 9.0
WILD-TYPE EYES VESTIGIAL WINGS 232 21.9% 2.9 4,712 17.7% 2.9
SEPIA EYES WILD-TYPE WINGS 224 21.1% 2.8 5,680 21.3% 3.5
SEPIA EYES VESTIGIAL WINGS 79 7.5% 1 1,629 6.1% 1
DISCUSSION
The results from the monohybrid cross for both my class and for all sections were very close to the expected results. "Theoretically, there should be three red-eyed flies for every one sepia-eyed fly. We call this a 3:1 phenotypic ratio" (So What's a Monohybrid Cross Anyway? 2). As indicated in table one, the data comes within one or two tenths of the 3:1 ratio. Therefore, the monohybrid cross was very accurate. However, the results from the dihybrid cross were not quite as accurate. Mendel hypothesized and proved that a dihybrid cross should produce a 9:3:3:1 ratio(Biology 245). In our experiment, the results from my class (both sexes) were not very close to the ratio. In table 2, the ratio shows 6.6:2.9:2.8:1. The data obtained from all classes were slightly more precise. All sections together (both sexes) produced a ratio of 9:2.9:3.5:1.
There are many reasons that our results did not match the expected ratios. For example, when transferring flies from one vial to another, a few flies got away which could have a small effect on the numbers. Another factor affecting the results also happened upon transferring flies. A number of flies were imbedded in the cultural medium. We were forced to leave them there so that we didn't loosen the medium. The largest source of error in the "my class" column came from the amount of time we allowed the flies to reproduce. Since Easter vacation occurred during our lab period, our second generation flies were permitted to stay together for two weeks instead of one. This may have resulted in the F2 generation flies mating with their own offspring, thus throwing off the ratio.
I feel more certain about the results in the "all classes" column since many more trials were performed and more flies were used. In any experiment, the more trials one conducts, the more accurate the results will be. This makes sense when comparing the results from my class versus the results from all classes combined. The numbers of flies used in each column make the difference in trials more evident: 1,060 flies were produced in my class, whereas 26, 623 flies were produced in all classes.
In the monohybrid cross, the ratio for eye color for the females were consistent with the ratio for males. This information implies that the gene for eye color is not sex linked. Through research, I found that in Drosophila melanogaster, chromosome one is the sex chromosome. Eye color is not one chromosome one, but rather on chromosome three. Therefore, eye color in Drosophila is not sex linked(Genetics:Drosophila Crosses).
In each column, the number of females produced outweighed the number of males. This may imply that the X chromosome is dominant over the Y chromosome. This would cause the X chromosome to mix with another X chromosome, producing a female, more often than it would mix with the Y chromosome, which would produce a male.
As a follow-up to the experiment, I would perform many more trials than each person did for this experiment. Also, more flies could be placed in each vial to ensure even more offspring to be included in the data. I would also be sure to remove the flies after just one week to reduce breeding between generations.
This experiment caused Mendel's findings to be more concrete and realistic in my mind. It made the information more than meaningless numbers. The experiment also made me realize how easily biological ideas can be proved. Our results agree with Mendel's discoveries. The only drawback to our learning was the massacre of over 26,000 fruit flies.


REFERENCES
Campbell, Neil A., Biology: Fourth Edition. Menlo Park: Benjamin/Cummings, 1996.
"Genetics: Drosophila Crosses." Lab Handouts, General Biology Lab, 1996.
"So What's a Monohybrid Cross Anyway?" Lab Handouts, General Biology Lab, 1996.

A Massive Project for the Benefit of Mankind:
A Look at the Human Genome Project

Scientists are taking medical technology to new heights as they race to map all of the genes, nearly 100,000, in the 23 chromosomes of the human body. Along the way, they hope to understand the basis of, and maybe even develop methods of treating certain genetic diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Muscular Dystrophy. They plan to do this by identifying the DNA sequence of an abnormal gene in which a disease originates and comparing it with the data of a normal or healthy gene. The entire research project is entitled "The Human Genome Project."
"The Human Genome Project" is a large scale project being conducted by more than 200 laboratories, with even more researchers and labs having joined in. Most of the labs and researchers are located in France and the United States. The project started in 1990 and was slated to take 15 years and cost $3 billion in U.S. money for the entire project coming to roughly $200 million per year. Federal funding for the project is nearly 60% of the annual need. This has created some funding problems for the project. There also have been technological advances and discoveries that have helped to speed up the project. This automation may help to reduce the cost and help the project to meet its objectives ahead of schedule. The project was estimated to have detailed maps of all of the chromosomes and know the location of most of the human Genes by 1996.
Researchers have successfully located the gene and DNA sequence for Huntington's Disease on Chromosome 4 and have created a genetic test to determine if a person carries this gene. "The child of a person with Huntington's has a 50% chance of inheriting the gene, which inevitably leads to the disease." Once an individual acquires the gene, it is only a matter of time before they acquire the disease. Because the medical costs of treating such persons in terminal illnesses are extremely high, insurance companies who want to stay in business see this genetic test, and others like it, as an opportunity to screen prospective clients for the probability of such diseases. Some people feel that this information gives insurance companies unfair advantage over those covered by medical insurance and point out that release of genetic information to insurance companies puts a severe disadvantage on the person who is screened, as well as violates the patients right to privacy. If this genetic information is not safegua
rded as confidential for the patient's and doctor's knowledge alone, then the patient can be labeled as undesirable and the patient may not be able to receive insurance coverage at any price. This also brings up other ethical questions. "Does genetic testing constitute an invasion of privacy, and would it stigmatize those found to have serious inborn deficiencies? Would prenatal testing lead to more abortions? Should anyone be tested before the age of consent?"
Obviously, many genetic advancements are to come of this research. One biotechnology that will benefit from genetic testing is genetic engineering. It too, may have many social implications depending on what is created from such experimentation.
Gene Therapy is one "spin-off" that has greatly benefited Gene-mapping. It utilizes genetic engineering to treat genetic disorders by "introducing genes into existing cells to prevent or cure diseases" . Most of the methods are still in the experimental stages and have yet to be approved by the FDA. One example would be in a proposed treatment for a brain tumor. Scientists would take a herpes gene and splice it in to a nonvirulent virus. Viruses and liposomes have an uncanny ability to navigate through cell membranes. The virus is then placed into a laboratory animal to reproduce itself, and after reproduction, is injected into the human's brain tumor. The virus is supposed to invade the tumor cells. Thus, the herpes enzyme will render the tumor vulnerable to drugs used to cure herpes, killing the tumor, the virus, and the animals' cells used to manufacture the virus.
With this and other ideas springing out from the "medicine cabinet", many researchers are optimistic about the results of their research. There is also a direct correlation of the sequencing of genes and production of effective drugs on diseases which may have different strands of defective genes, such as Alzheimer's. Locating these genes would be crucial to synthesizing a product to affect that specific location in the gene. The director of the gene-therapy program at the University of Southern California, Dr. W. French Anderson states, "Twenty years from now, gene therapy will have revolutionized medicine. Virtually every disease will have it as one of its treatments." Such an impact on medicine would take much longer to occur with "hit and miss" tactics, rather than methodically mapping out the blueprint for the body.
So whether we, as society, want to go forward in this research slowly, or with blazing speed, scientists will go forward and do what they set out to do. The fact that this research will benefit humanity is resounding, we just need to remember to handle our findings in such a manner that benefits all of society, not just those on top of the economical food chain. Also, persons should be able to decide for themselves if they can handle knowing what their genetic flaws are. Sometimes knowing you will eventually be afflicted by a disease can be as emotionally devastating as actually having the disease.
Some states have already enacted laws guarding the rights of individuals genetically tested . The problem is that most only cover certain procedures and not all of the testing. Whatever way we govern such testing, we have to realize, will be inefficient by most standards, as government always is, in complicated situations. I feel that if genetic information should be public knowledge, then every country using this genetic concept should provide "blanket insurance" coverage for everyone at the same rate. This would be the only fair action that would have the common person's interest in mind, although it is a socialist concept, people would not be discriminated against and it would put everyone on a level playing field. Since I don't see a comprehensive health care plan in our horizon, we should consider making personal genetic information excluded from insurance companies, the government, etc., except for the actual treatment of the patient, which was the original reason that these tests were created. The
reason that I feel genetic information should be totally excluded from insurance companies is this: Once genetic testing becomes widely available, it would be easy for an insurance company to require people to submit to a genetic test before they could be covered. If the person applying is found to be unfit, it could go on his or her insurance "medical report", such as a "credit report", which would blacklist that person from ever getting coverage. Obviously there is a need for governmental laws to prevent this from happening. No one can control what genes they will get, and just because you have "bad" genes doesn't mean you are a "bad" person, thus no one should be discriminated against due to these "weaknesses". I personally feel that the Human Genome Project is a great undertaking intended for the benefit of mankind. There are many advances that have been made in treatments as well as the creation of various machines that automate the process of gene mapping. Machines that may be used to automate th
e study of other organisms. I just don't trust the motives behind the insurance companies who could unduly benefit from such testing. I feel that the individual's right to privacy should remain paramount, and that there should be laws set in motion to prohibit a person from being discriminated against because of genetic predisposition.

Bibliography
Bloch, Hanna; Dan Cray and Christine Sadlowski: "Keys to the Kingdom" and "Do You Want to Know If the News Is Bad," Time Special Issue (vol. 148 No. 14, Fall 1996) pp. 24-29.
The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia is licensed from Columbia University Press. Copyright (c) 1995 by Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
Duby, Jean-Jacques: "Genetic Discrimination," Science (vol. 270, Nov. 24, 1996) pg. 1282-3.
Holmes, Bob: "Blueprint for Brewer's Yeast," New Scientist (vol. 150, Apr. 27, 1996) pg. 11.
Hudson, Kathy L.: "Genetic Discrimination and Health Insurance: an Urgent Need for Reform," Science (v. 270 Oct. 20, 1995) p 391-3.
Hutton, Richard: "Bio-Revolution: DNA and the Ethics of Manmade Life," New York: New American Library.
Lewis, John: "Automation System Quickens Gene Mapping," Design News (vol. 51, July 8, 1996)
Pennisi, Elizabeth: "New Gene Forges Link Between Fragile Site and Many Cancers," Science (May 3, 1996) pg. 649.

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The goal of this research is to direct retinal stem cells so they functionally integrate as cone photoreceptors upon transplantation into damaged retinas.
Principal Researcher on this research project
Dr Brendan Kennedy
Background
Cone photoreceptors in the retina enable detailed and colour vision. Inability of cones to process light stimuli results in the most severe forms of blindness. Mutations in many genes have been linked with inherited blindness. Potential approaches to treat blindness include pharmacological protectants, gene therapy and (stem) cell transplantation.
Stem cell transplantation has the potential as a universal treatment for many forms of retinal degeneration, irrespective of genetic basis. Therapeutic applications of stem cells include generating cells for transplantation that i) replace damaged cells or ii) that express factors protecting vulnerable cells.

In this project we propose to a piscis model as a novel approach to uncover the means to direct retinal stem cells to functionally integrate as cone photoreceptors. Our approach involves optimising conditions for the culture of retinal stem/progenitor cells from the developing eye and the adult ciliary marginal zone. Ultimately, the goal is to translate our findings from this piscis model and direct human stem cells to become cone cells for transplantation.

march 13, 2009

K. JESHI

Meet Meenakshi, a beacon of hope for women who are HIV positive.








LIFE IS ALL ABOUT LIVING: Meenakshi (right) and Gomathy show the way. PHOTO: M. PERIASAMY

IT has taken one woman to kick-start a revolution of silenced women in Tamil Nadu by bravely telling people "I'm HIV positive." At meetings in villages and towns, R. Meenakshi, 27, stands tall on the podium and recounts the grim reality that there are thousands like her and all of them need society's help and attention.

"If I can live a normal life, so can you," Meenakshi tells the meetings organised by volunteer groups to spread awareness about the Human Immunodeficiency Virus/AIDS, which has afflicted more than 5.1 million people across India, as per the National AIDS Control Organisation.

Seven years ago, Meenakshi realised that she was infected with HIV, a week before her husband, a lorry driver, died. Her in-laws abandoned her, forcing Meenakshi to stay with her parents.

Meenakshi remained huddled in a room for one year, not even daring to step outside. "There was a constant fear of death and also health problems." She also had to bear the neighbours taunts: "Unlucky girl", "Everything is over for this girl at such a young age" and "Poor fate". Meenakshi's daughter was barely two years old when her husband died and when she was three years of age it was time to send her to school. Meenakshi's parents were not in a position to meet the expenses. So there was just one choice — to find a job. "I joined a photocopier shop for a monthly salary of Rs.1,000, took an advance and paid the school fee."

A year later, when Meenakshi went to the General Hospital in Coimbatore for treatment of a nagging cough, doctors also began treating her for HIV. As she began receiving a cocktail of anti-retroviral medication, a counsellor explained to her the reality of the disease: that she can live longer. Meenakshi gained courage and was soon on a private satellite television channel, telling people not to give up hope. She insisted that the camera crew show her face instead of masking it. Her face stared out of posters. HIV positive women sought her out on the streets, telling her their tales. Meenakshi was a star.

The Society for Positive Mothers Development was born to tell positive mothers that help is available. In the beginning, nine HIV positive women joined the group. "Initially, we organised support group meetings at the General Hospital to create awareness on HIV. We wanted to apply for bank loans and start a self-help group, which was not successful, because banks were not willing to finance us. Some members took training in tailoring and bouquet making through NGOs," adds Meenakshi. Soon the number swelled to 89.

The urge to make the group self-sufficient has turned Meenakshi into a counsellor, an ambassador and now an entrepreneur. She runs SPM cable network in Edayarpalayam and TVS Nagar, 14 km away from Coimbatore, employing five people.

For the South Indian Aids Action Programme, Meenakshi counsels patients and for the Aids Prevention and Control Society, she participates at regular meetings in Chennai, Salem, Tiruchi, Erode and Udhagamandalam (Ooty), in the evening, she's the cable operator.

Says K. Mahadevan, assistant professor of sexually transmitted diseases at the General Hospital in Coimbatore, who motivated her to become independent: "In meetings, she had the audience spellbound and just blew adversaries away. You can't believe the effect it had."

Self-sufficient



Meenakshi has become a beacon of hope. Taking a cue from her is a group of enthusiastic positive mothers: There is K. Gomathy, who is now a full-time counsellor at the GH. As the secretary of the society, Gomathy acts as a link between HIV patients and doctors, lawyers and industrial establishments and offers skill training to positive mothers to help them set up small industrial units. "Out of the 89 members in the society, 90 per cent of them are self-sufficient. Only a meagre 10 per cent with poor health stay at home," she adds.

R. Rajalakshmi, an emerging entrepreneur, is another example.

She specialises in glass paintings, gift items, embossing, embroidery and tailoring works and provides employment to positive mothers in Kanuvai, 12 km away from Coimbatore city.

"Though there is fear of falling sick," Meenakshi tells us, "I get nausea every morning, I don't worry about it. I take my medicines and start my day." She has brought about a major change in family members too. "They encourage us to take up jobs and also to start small businesses on our own," Rajalakshmi adds.

What's next? "A team of four members will leave to Chennai shortly for training and form a cultural group to spread awareness on HIV through skits and dance dramas," Meenakshi adds.

Explains Dr. K. Mahadevan: "Societies such as the Indian Network for Positive Persons and Positive Women Network fight for the rights of positive women. But, the Society for Positive Mothers Development is an example of self-sufficiency. What they require is the motivation to sustain their life. This can be done by providing inputs for income generation either through training or by giving monetary inputs. Emphasis on nutrition and medical care is also vital."

For NGOs, it's a new challenge to rescue women from HIV. To alleviate the impact of HIV/AIDs on women and children, an NGO, Shanti Ashram, has started the "Aravanaippu" initiative, supported by UNICEF. The attempt brings religious leaders of Tamil Nadu together to address the worsening health crisis.

"Positive mothers need to be given hope. It's just not a health issue. In on a broader sense it's a basic human rights issue where some of the women have not had access to health care, education and basic human dignity," says Vinu Aram, director of Shanti Ashram. Meenakshi agrees. "Now people see the faces of HIV and they can also see that we can live a normal life."

source: sunday magazine the hindu

may 19, 2009


KANKANA BASU


Looking and feeling good in the heat is possible as long as you eat right.









If it is summer in Mumbai, it must be Alphonsos!” runs a popular line. Mango season it definitely is, with the aroma permeating every nook and cranny of the city. The presence of the Alphonso mango and its more modest cous In the crossfire


Many a food lover, however, finds himself caught in the crossfire between traditional beliefs and newer findings in the fields of diet and nutrition. “Reading maketh a man but too much reading might end up confusing a man,” rues 55-year-old Srikanth Misra. While one magazine informs him that a mango a day through summer will take care of his immunity for the year, his elderly neighbour warns him that mango is a “heat-producing” food that is often difficult to digest. “Dividing food into ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ categories is an age-old custom in India. While Western schools of nutrition might pooh-pooh these beliefs, there is definite wisdom in making season-related food choices”, says Mumbai-based nutritionist Vinita Arin.

While mango may be way up there in nutrition and taste, weight watchers must be aware of its calorie-rich nature (both in green and ripe states), she cautions, and its sap could lead to facial eruptions and painful boils. Just soaking the fruit in cool water for a couple of hours (a practice followed by our grandmothers) could make the fruit safe for consumption, she says. Refrigerating the fruit could prove equally effective.

“Dehydration, lack of appetite, lethargy, a slowing down of the digestion process and constant thirst are symptoms that crop up in hot sultry weather. To counteract these, the best option in to choose foods that are light, hydrating and easy on the stomach. Food eaten at room temperature or a little above it is preferable to eating piping hot food,” she says. She recommends melons (watermelons, musk melons), citrus fruits (sweet limes, oranges and lemons), berries (mulberries, gooseberries), gourds (snake gourd, bottle gourd, bitter gourd) and green salads made from cucumber, lettuce, raw cabbage, spinach, coriander leaves and spring onions as ideal summer choices. A dash of fresh lime juice and a sprinkling of rock salt could be added for taste.

Hot soups, tea, coffee, rich gravies, barbeques and biriyanis are best reserved for winter and monsoon months as are dishes loaded with ghee, cream and spices. Cold coffee, iced tea are good options to revive flagging energy however, as are yoghurt based drinks and dips.

Go for yoghurt

“The health benefits of yoghurt can never be stressed enough and these are especially relevant in summer,” says diet expert Vipula Swaminathan. Flavoured yoghurt, plain creamy yoghurt, the Maharashtrian srikhand or the Bengali favourite mishti doi are all high on nutritional value, she elaborates.

The South Indian tradition of eating fluffy steamed rice and using curry leaves, curd and tamarind in their cooking help make a summer friendly meal, while the patent cuisine of north India (rajma, chole, parathas etc.) is the trouble maker. Fortunately, we live in times of cultural osmosis with each region adopting food habits of the other effortlessly and the mix-and match menus of this age work out very well.

“Though we are typical Punjabis, we often have multi-cuisine meals cooked at home and believe in picking the seasonal best from every region,” says home-maker Kuljeet Randhwa. Wary of chemical preservatives used in commercially produced fruit juices and ice-creams, Kuljeet encourages children in the family to extract juice from fresh fruits and make their own ices and lollies. “They are healthy, nutritious, colourful and fun to make; so much better than factory made stuff,” she says.

Interestingly, nearly every region has summer food specials. While the Gujaratis thrive on dahi kadhi, chaas and aam raas, the Bengalis insist on a runny sweet-sour green mango chutney and bitter gourd with their meals. The ubiquitous rasam with its stomach-friendly ingredients is an appetiser and digestive rolled into one for those in the south while the Maharashtrians resort to kokum kadhi. Traditionally prepared digestive pills with asafoetida, pomegranate seeds, cumin seeds, and dessicated mangoes rolled in honey, sea salt or jaggery are delicious to nibble on after a meal and can hold great health benefits.

The age old philosophy that you are what you eat seems to hold true in these summer months. Looking and feeling good in the sweltering heat is possible as long as you eat right, say the experts and with grandmother’s homespun remedies to choose from backed by advice from the world of science, keeping one’s cool was never this easy.

source: sunday magazine the hindu

june 29, 2009


DR. KUSHAGRA KATARIYA


The causes of heart disease are complex. Busting some myths.





Photo: S. Thanthoni

Keeping fit: Make an early start.


It’s always about the heart! Anything remotely related to it has never been spared of speculation and debates. But there is a thin line that separates the myths from the facts.

Myth 1: Heart disease affects only the old/middle aged.

Many people think that heart disease as a problem of middle and older age, because that’s when the manifestations of heart disease, such as angina and heart attack strike. Although the manifestations of coronary artery disease typically occur during the middle and later years of life, the roots of coronary artery disease lie early in life— in childhood.

Heart attacks can even happen to people in their 20’s and 30’s, from unusually high cholesterol levels that are hereditary. High paced, stressful lifestyles with irregular eating habits and lack of exercise are one of the causes of coronary artery disease striking early.

Adopting a healthy lifestyle early in life works much better than changing one’s lifestyle later in life. Ideally one should have their cholesterol and blood pressure levels checked in their 30’s and 40’s, which, if too high, can be early indicators of a heart disease. Moreover, Indians are genetically more prone to and suffer heart disease earlier than their western counterparts.


Myth 2: Heart disease doesn’t really affect women


Heart disease is the leading cause of death in women older than 40, especially after menopause.

Loss of estrogen is a significant cause of heart disease after menopause and therefore the risk for heart disease increases after the age of 50 for women. There are also some unchangeable factors like family history which make one more prone to heart disease.

Lifestyle plays a crucial role. Smoking and fatal heart diseases go hand-in-hand. If a woman smokes, she increases her risk for early heart disease. There are some differences, though, in how heart disease affects men and women. For instance, women usually get heart disease 10 years later than men, but they have a lower chance of surviving a heart attack than men.

They are also more likely to have a second heart attack as compared to men.

Some interesting and educational facts about heart related problems:

Cholesterol deposition in blood vessels begins in the first decade of life. So, good eating habits and regular physical activity should be inculcated from early childhood if coronary heart disease is to be prevented.

One third of patients with coronary heart disease have normal cholesterol levels. Low levels of good cholesterol (HDL cholesterol) increases risk of heart disease even if level of bad (LDL cholesterol) or total cholesterol is normal.

Blood Pressure

Each blood pressure increment of 20/10 mmHg doubles the risk of coronary heart disease across the entire BP range starting from 115/75 mmHg.

High blood pressure originally thought to be a normal occurrence with increasing age is a misconception. Increased blood pressure is harmful irrespective of the person’s age.

Risk of heart attack in diabetics with no prior heart attack is similar to non diabetics with prior heart attack.

Risk of heart disease in “mild” smokers is almost as high as “heavy” smokers. So, for risk reduction smoking should be completely stopped and not merely reduced.

“Physical inactivity” or lack of regular physical exercise is as important and as harmful a risk factor as high blood pressure or diabetes. Regular physical activity is the best preventive effort for coronary heart disease as it prevents all its risk factors.

Clinical benefits of blood pressure, diabetes and cholesterol reduction are similar irrespective of the treatment modality chosen.

The writer is a CEO and Chief Cardiothoracic Surgeon in Gurgaon

source: sunday magazine the hindu

DR. RISHMA DHILLON PAI


Regular screening helps detect and treat malignancies in time.





Women’s health has several unique issues: problems of menstruation, child bearing, hormonal and other gynaecological diseases. The most worrisome is cancer. Certain cancers are unique to women like cervical cancer, ovarian and uterine cancer. B reast cancer, though it occurs in men also, is mainly seen in women.

Ovarian cancer usually develops in women over 50 years though some kinds develop in younger women. The risk factors are family history, or women who have had breast/uterus/colon cancer in the past. Women who have never been pregnant, who have taken oestrogen for more than 10 years are also at a higher risk. Nowadays genetic testing can be done in high risk families and if the patient tests positive for the BRCA I & II gene (associated with breast cancer), she is at high risk for ovarian and breast cancer. Increased use of fertility drugs, using talcum powder near the vagina and obesity are also risk factors.

The use of oral contraceptive pills, however, reduces the risk of ovarian cancer while the removal of ovaries during hysterectomy prevents later development. Ovarian cancer is very dangerous as it is not easily diagnosed till an advanced stage. The only symptoms may be heaviness and bloating in the stomach, gas, nausea, or diarrhoea. Sometimes irregular vaginal bleeding may be seen.

The diagnosis is made by a pelvic examination, sonography, blood test such as CA 125 and MRI and treatment usually involves a major surgery — to remove the uterus, tubes, ovaries and the surrounding tissue — followed by chemotherapy.

Cancer of the uterus occurs more often in obese, diabetic women after age 40. Women who have suffered from polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) when young and had delayed periods for a long time without treatment are more prone. Women who menstruated early and had late menopause, infertility or a past history of breast or ovarian cancer are at a higher risk.

First sign

Usually, the cancer is preceded by endometrial hyperplasia or thickness of the womb lining, which is non-cancerous. If diagnosis can be made early using sonography, the development can be prevented by use of hormonal medicines or a hysterectomy. However, if not picked up early, hyperplasia may progress to cancer. The symptoms are irregular bleeding, post-menopausal bleeding, pain or lump in lower abdomen or weight loss. The final confirmation is done by an endometrial biopsy or D&C or a hysteroscopy.

The treatment is essentially surgical involving removal of the womb, tubes, ovaries and surrounding tissue. Hormone therapy, radiation and chemotherapy may be required in some cases.

Breast cancer is one of the commonest cancers in women but the cause remains unknown. However about 10 per cent may be due to genetic causes. Women bearing a defective breast cancer associated gene (BRCA I & II) are at an increased risk. Women who start their periods early and have late menopause andlate pregnancy or those who have never had children are also at high risk. Long-term use of HRT may increase the risk.

The importance of regular breast self-examination cannot be over-emphasised. An annual mammography and sonography after the age of 40 will help pick up the problem early and simplify treatment. If there is a suspicious area on mammography, a fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAC) or open biopsy will confirm the diagnosis.

The treatment is usually surgical. In early stages, a lumpectomy with sampling of lymph nodes while saving the breast may be sufficient but in later stages a mastectomy or removal of the breast may be necessary. Often radiation or chemotherapy is necessary after surgery. Hormone-dependent breast cancers often need hormone blocking drugs after surgery.

“As I see it, everyday you do one of two things: build health or produce disease in yourself.” Adelle Davis

The writer is a Consultant Gynaecologist based in Mumbai

source: sunday magazine the hindu

april 04, 2010

Fruit is one of the most healthy and natural foods in existence. There are thousands of different types of fruit available to eat, all of which provide us with strong health benefits. Fruit contains a large number of naturally occurring vitamins, minerals and plant phytochemicals that help benefit health. However, these should be eaten on an empty stomach.

Graying hair, balding, nervous outburst and dark circles under the eyes, all these will not happen if you take fruits on an empty stomach.

There is no such thing as some fruits, like orange and lemon are acidic, because all fruits become alkaline in our body. If you have mastered the correct way of eating fruits, you have the secret of beauty, longevity, health, energy, happiness and normal weight.

When you need to drink fruit juice — drink only fresh fruit juice, not from the cans. Don’t even drink juice that has been heated up. Don’t eat cooked fruits as it destroys all the nutrients.

But eating a whole fruit is better than drinking the juice. If you should drink the juice, drink it mouthful by mouthful slowly, because you must let it mix with your saliva before swallowing it.

You can go on a three-day fruit fast to cleanse your body. Just eat fruits and drink fruit juice throughout the three days and you will be surprised when your friends tell you how radiant you look!


Kiwi might be a tiny fruit but its benefits are many. This is a good source of potassium, magnesium, vitamin E and fibre. Its vitamin C content is twice that of an orange.


An apple a day keeps the doctor away goes the famous saying. Although an apple has a low vitamin C content, it has antioxidants and flavonoids which enhances the activity of vitamin C thereby helping to lower the risks of colon cancer, heart attack and stroke. It also helps to reduce risks of colon cancer, prostrate cancer and lung cancers.


Strawberries have the highest total antioxidant power among major fruits and protect the body from cancer-causing, blood vessel-clogging free radicals.


Eating two to four oranges a day may help keep colds away, lower cholesterol, prevent and dissolve kidney stones as well as lessens the risk of colon cancer.


Composed of 92 per cent water, watermelon is also packed with a giant dose of glutathione, which helps boost our immune system. They are also a key source of lycopene — the cancer fighting oxidant. Other nutrients found in watermelon are vitamin C and potassium.


Papayas and guavas are the clear winners due to their high vitamin C content. Guava is also rich in fibre, which helps prevent constipation. Papaya is rich in carotene; this is good for your eyes.

source: dailypioneer.com

Body Systems

There are 10 body systems, one of them is the Integumentary (skin).
It is composed of hair, skin, nails, sence receptions and oil glands. Its
functionis to protect from outside, to regulate the body temperature, to
make synthesis of hormones & chemicals and is used as a sense
organ.
Another one is the Skeletal System (bones). It is made of about 206
bones, that are divided in tho categories: axial bones (in the body by
itself) and apendicular bones (arms & legs). We have Joints too.
Thei`re divided in Ball Socket (like elbow and shoulders) and sattle
(fingers). This system`s function are movement, storage of minerals,
blood formation, support of the body and protection of body parts.
The next one is the Muscular System. It is composed of muscles
(dah). The muscles are divided in visceral or involuntary or smooth
(The one in the organs, like intestines), skeletal or voluntary or
striated (found superficial to the bones, like biceps, triceps...) and
cardiac (heart). Their functions are movement, to maintain body
posture & tone and in the production of body heat.
Now its time for the Nervous System. Its constructed of the brain, the
spinal cord and the nerves (neurons). Its functions are to
communicate (fast with short duration), integration, and to control.
The subsequent system is the Endocrine System (known as ductless
too...). This is composed of a lot of things... They are:pituitary gland -
below the brain (master gland), pineal gland - brain (It`s called the
"third eye" by some, because its sensitive to light cycles),
hypothalamus - also in the brain (it works with the pituitary), the
thyrodic - neck (controls the metabolism), adrenal - kidneys
(responsible for the adrenaline), pancreas - near stomach (produces
insulin), ovaries - on females and testes - on males (it produces
estrogen and ova - testosterone and sperm, respectively). Their
functions are to secrete hormones into the blood, communication
(slow & long duration), integration and control.

It will reveals some of the problems in our heart

DIURETIC PLANTS
Our polluted environment and over processed food with additives and preservatives can lead to accumulation of toxins, heavy metals, carcinogens and other pollutants in our body. Stored between our joints, they cause pain and inflammation leading to rheumatic pain and arthritis. When they accumulate around our organs, they impair the functions of organs such as kidney, heart, liver, lungs and brain. One of the ways to remove toxins from our body is through urination.

Diuretic plants help us get rid of excess water as well as cleanse our body of harmful toxins and metabolic waste through increased urination.
Here are two of them:
Dandelion is traditionally used for gall bladder and urinary disorders including gallstones and edema [water retention] associated with high blood pressure and heart disease.

Parsley is used in both the West and East for systemic irrigation of the urinary tract to accelerate the excretion of toxins. The diuretic effect of parsley
leaf and root is due to its volatile oil components myristicin and apiole. Apiole is a kidney stimulant. The essential oils can stimulate uterine contractions
and should not be used by pregnant women.

For more diuretic plants, visit article section of
http://jumblebox.webs.com/

1) Mobile
Don't put your mobile closer to your ears until the because directly after dialing, the mobile phone would use it's maximum signaling power, which is:
2watts = 33dbi. Please Be Careful. Please use left ear while using cell (mobile), because if you use the right one it may affect brain directly. This is
a true fact from Apollo medical team.
2) APPY FIZZ
Do not drink APPY FIZZ. It contains cancer causing agent.
3) Mentos
Don't eat Mentos before or after drinking Coke or
Pepsi coz the person will die immediately as the mixture becomes cyanide. Please fwd to whom u care
4) Kurkure
Don't eat kurkure because it contains high amount of plastic if U don't Believe burn kurkure n u can see plastic melting. Please forward to all!!!!!!!!!
!! News report from Times of India
5) Avoid these tablets as they are very dangerous
* D cold
* Vicks action- 500
* Actified
* Coldarin
* Co some
* Nice
* Nimulid
* Cetrizet-D
They contain Phenyl- Propanol -Amide PPA.Which Causes strokes, and these tablets are banned in U.S.
6) Cotton Ear Buds
Cotton Ear Buds... (Must read it) Please do not show sympathy to people selling buds on roadside or at Signals..... Just wanted to warn you people not
to buy those packs of ear buds you get at the roadside. It's made from cotton that has already been used in hospitals. They take all the dirty, blood and
pus filled cotton, wash it, bleach it and use it to make ear buds. So, unless you want to become the first person in the world to get Herpes Zoster Oticus
(a viral infection of the inner, middle, and external ear) of the ear and that too from a cotton bud, DON'T BUY THEM! Please forward to all this may be
helpful for someone..... ....... Please forward to all your near and dear ones....!
7. PLEASE FORWARD IT TO ALL WHOM YOU CARE.
Dr. T. S. Roy MD, PhD
Professor, Department of Anatomy
All India Institute of Medical Sciences
New Delhi - 110 029
Phone: 91-11-26594880
Fax: 91-11-26588663, 26588641
Dr Rima Dada, M.D., Ph.D(Genetics) , MAMS
Associate Professor, Dept of Anatomy,
All India Institute of Medical Sciences(AIIMS)
New Delhi
110029-INDIA

BRAIN DAMAGING HABITS

1. No Breakfast
People who do not take breakfast are going to have a lower blood sugar level. This leads to an insufficient supply of nutrients to the brain causing brain
degeneration.

2 . Overeating=2 0
It causes hardening of the brain arteries, leading to a decrease in mental power.

3. Smoking
It causes multiple brain shrinkage and may lead to Alzheimer disease.

4. High Sugar consumption
Too much sugar will interrupt the absorption of proteins and nutrients causing malnutrition and may interfere with brain development.

5. Air Pollution
The brain is the largest oxygen consumer in our 20 body. Inhaling polluted air decreases the supply of oxygen to the brain, bringing about a decrease in
brain efficiency.

6 . Sleep Deprivation
Sleep allows our brain to r est.. Long term deprivation from sleep will accelerate the death of brain cells..

7. Head covered while sleeping
Sleeping with the head covered increases the concentration of carbon dioxide and decrease concentration of oxygen that may lead to brain damaging effects.

8. Working your brain during illness
Working hard or studying with sickness may lead to a decrease in effectiveness of the brain as well as damage the brain.

9. Lacking in stimulating thoughts
Thinking is the best way to train our brain, lacking in brain stimulation thoughts may cause brain shrinkage.

10. Talking Rarely
Intellectual conversations will promote the efficiency of the brain

The main causes of liver damage are:

1. Sleeping too late and waking up too late are main cause.

2. Not urinating in the morning.

3 . Too much eatin g.

4. Skipping breakfast.

5. Consuming too much medication.

6. Consuming too much preservatives, additives, food coloring, and artificial sweetener.

7. Consuming unhealthy cooking oil.
As much as possible reduce cooking oil use when frying, which includes even the best cooking oils like olive oil. Do not consume fried foods when you are
tired, except if the body is20very fit.

8. Consuming raw (overly done) foods also add to the burden of liver.

Veggies should be eaten ra w or cooked 3-5 parts. Fried veggies should be finished in one sitting, do not store.

We should prevent this without necessarily spending more. We just have to adopt a good daily lifestyle and eating habits. Maintaining good eating habits
and time condition are very important for our bodies to absorb and get rid of unnecessary chemicals according to 'schedule.'

9. Alcohol Consumption
Continuous consumption leads to liver damage.

People who drink alcohol daily, compared to weekly binge drinkers, are at risk for developing more serious forms of liver disease, including cirrhosis
or progressive fibrosis, according to a study done in the United Kingdom.

If you started drinking at an early age -- around age 15 or earlier -- and developed a habit of daily drinking, research shows these to be the biggest
risk factors in developing life-threatening
alcohol-related liver disease.

Weekly binge drinkers can develop liver disease also, but daily or near daily heavy drinking has been shown to cause an increasing number of deaths in
the
U.K. due to liver disease.

The top five cancer-causing foods are:

1.. Hot Dogs

Because they are high in nitrates, the Cancer Prevention Coalition advises that children eat no more than 12 hot dogs a month. If you can't live without
hot dogs, buy those made without sodium nitrate.

2. Processed meats and Bacon

Also high in the same sodium nitrates found in hot dogs, bacon, and other processed meats raise the risk of heart disease. The saturated fat in bacon also
contributes to cancer.

3. Doughnuts

Doughnuts are cancer-causing double trouble. First, they are made with white flour, sugar, and hydrogenated oils, then fried at high temperatures. Doughnuts,
says Adams , may be the worst food you can possibly eat to raise your risk of cancer.

4. French fries

Like doughnuts, French fries are made with hydrogenated oils and then fried at high temperatures. They also contain cancer- causing acryl amides which
occur during the frying process. They sh ould be called cancer fries, not French fries, said Adams .

5. Chips, crackers, and cookies

All are usually made with white flour and sugar. Even the ones whose labels claim to be free of trans-fats generally contain small amounts of trans-fats.

PASS THIS TO ALL WHOM YOU LOVE & CARE FOR.

We've long known that the brain is an amazing thing, but did you
specifically know that:

1. Every person has more than 75km of nerves in their body.
2. Your nerves can send messages faster than a Grand Prix car travels.
3. The brain is the most complex machine in the universe. It has over
100,000,000, 000 nerve cells each with up to 150,000 connections. Each
cell is connected
to 25,000 others.
4. If every person on the planet simultaneously made 200,000 phone
calls, there would be the same total number of connections as in a
single human brain
in a day.
5. The grey cells occupy only 5% of our brain. 95% is taken up by the
communication network that runs between the grey cells.
6. The brain weighs about 1.5 kg in an adult human, about 1.5% of the
body weight.
7. Damaged brain cells do not regenerate but mental and physical
functions can improve after mild or moderate brain damage with skilful
rehabilitation.

8. Compared to other animals, human brains are big for the body.
9. The human brain is only just bigger than your two fists.
10. On average, the male brain (approx 1.4kg) is slightly bigger than
the female brain (approx 1.26kg).
11. Each half of the brain controls the other half of your body.
12. In right-handed individuals (which comprise 91% of people): the
right side of the brain controls: musical talent, fantasy,
imagination, dreams, drawing,
and painting. The left side of the brain controls: mathematical
ability, ability to solve logic problems, controls language skills,
remembers names, dates,
and facts.
13. The grey part of the brain is folded to fit inside the skull and,
if flattened, it would cover the surface of an office desk.
14. The brain contains 100 billion brain cells of which, 100,000 are
irretrievably lost each day.
15. You can retain about seven facts at any one time in short term
memory, but over the long term your brain has to forget things to make
room for new memories.

Warm Regards,
Faizal K.A